Can Sugar Help Lower The Freezing Point Of Water

Can sugar help lower the freezing point of water? Each year 17 million tons of salt is applied by state agencies to US roads across the nation helping people navigate otherwise treacherous roads. With the good also comes the bad which is the corrosion or oxidation caused by the natural attraction of water to salt. Salt makes water act as a catalyst by speeding up corrosion on millions of vehicles around the world. Can it be possible to use a less corrosive additive such as sugar to lower the freezing point of water? Problem: Can sugar help lower the freezing point of water? Relevance: Sugar is an additive and should have an effect on the freezing point of water. Other experiments, by university students and US states, have been conducted to find additives that may lower the freezing point of water. The students and US states conducted tests using sugar and different types of salt. Overall, salt performs better in reducing the freezing point of water. Sugar also lowers the freezing point of water but not as low as salt does. An article on brighthub.com states that adding any additive to water will help lower the freezing point because the new solution is no longer pure water. Another study found that when ice cubes are sprinkled with salt, sugar, and sand the ice cubes sprinkled with salt melt fastest followed by sugar. Steps: For this experiment, the same amount of salt and sugar will be dissolved into the same amount of boiling tap water. Then the solutions are placedShow MoreRelatedEssay on Science Fair Project Example1340 Words   |  6 PagesHow do different liquids and solids affect the boiling and freezing point of water? Name 02/12/12 ABSTRACT There are many different substances that affect the freezing and boiling points of water. This experiment was designed to test the effects of five liquid and five solid substances/mixtures on the freezing and boiling points of water. It was hypothesized that if we tested five liquid and five solid substances/mixtures then the results would show that the solids would have a greater affectRead MoreScience Fair Project : The Freezing Of Water1486 Words   |  6 Pages The Freezing Of Water Mrs.Petit Period 4 This science fair project is important in ways that people should use to form certain things that could help people see that there is a better conservation of goods. This could help better the community by using different substances from housing areas then put them to use. The freezing point Is determined by how much of particles were broken down In the mixture. When its in freezing point the potential of that solution willRead MoreEssay What Makes Ice Melt Faster1174 Words   |  5 Pageswondered why things such as salt or sand are used over other methods to help de-ice the surfaces? Why is salt or sand the most commonly used substances when addressing this issue? Abstract If you live in a place that gets cold in the winter, youve probably seen trucks out spreading a mixture of sand and salt on the streets after a snowfall to help de-ice the road. Have you ever wondered how this works? This basic chemistry project can give you some clues. Objective The goal of this project is to determineRead MoreInt1 Task 3 Essay1391 Words   |  6 PagesINT Task 3 Does Salt make Ice melt Faster? Project Plan Salt is known to be used on icy roads in certain areas of the country in the winter season to help clear roadways to make them safer for travel. Salt causes a reaction that lowers the freezing point of water. In this experiment we will test this method of applying salt to ice to see if for certain this is true, and how much faster the salt melts if so. In this experiment, the Independent Variable will be adding Salt to the ice and theRead MoreWater Cycle And Its Effect On Earth1527 Words   |  7 Pagescould explain how important water is for life on earth to survive without first explaining what water is and how different it is than other substances. Water is unique in that it is the only natural substance that is found on earth as a liquid, solid and gas. The water cycle of the earth shows that it is constantly interacting, changing, and moving. The water cycle has five parts which are evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration and surface run-off. This water cycle is critical to lifeRead MoreCharles Darwin s Survival Of The Sickest By Dr. Sharon Moalem2195 Words   |  9 Pagesof the most important mineral that almost every form of life contains in order to function for metabolism. 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ItRead MoreThe Effect Of Temperature On The Ph Of Orange Juice1625 Words   |  7 Pagesby using ph indicator strips that change color when it comes in contact with an acid or a base and comparing it with a color chart. The substances I will be using are vinegar, orange juice , and lemon juice. These can all be found at a local grocery store. The ph paper and color chart can be found at Walmart. Besides my experiment there have been other experiments that have tested temperature’s effect on ph. They also wanted to know whether temperature affects the ph. I found an experimentRead MoreDetermining the Water Potential of Potato Tubers Using Gravimetric anc Chardakov Techniques1511 Words   |  7 PagesDetermining the Water Potential of Potato Tubers using Gravimetric and Chardakov Techniques 1. INTRODUCTION: Water potential (ï â„¢W) is the measure of free-energy status of water in plant cell, which is the driving force governing the movement of water into and out of the plat cell and affect various metabolic activities (O’Leary, 1970). Water potential is depends on different solute concentrations, pressure and matrix a particle; measured in Mega Pascal’s (MPa) and written as: ï â„¢W = ï â„¢s + ï â„¢pRead MoreFood Packaging8789 Words   |  36 Pagesidentifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products. The Packaging Institute International defines packaging as the enclosure of products items or packages in a wrapped pouch, big-box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container to protect preserve. UK Institute of packaging defines packaging as 1. A coordinated system of preparing foods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and end use. 2. A means of ensuring safe delivery to

State Ready Mix Inc. V. Moffatt And Nichol - 2356 Words

Case #1: State Ready Mix Inc. v. Moffatt Nichol (2015) Cal. App. 4th Case Number: No. B253421. Second Dist., Div. Six. Jan. 8, 2015. Parties Involved: †¢ State Ready Mix, Inc: Appellant and Cross Complainant †¢ Moffatt Nichol: Respondent, Cross Defendant †¢ Vincent J. O’Neal: Judge Project Specifications: No specifications were given within the document. Date and Location of Case: †¢ Date: 01/08/2015 †¢ Location: California Court of Appeals, Second District, 6th Division Summary of Case: In 2012, a marine project manager called Bellingham Marine Inc. (â€Å"Bellingham†) hired Major Engineering Marine Inc. (â€Å"Major†) for a project to build a travel lift pier at a harbor. Bellingham then hired a civil engineering firm, Moffatt Nichol†¦show more content†¦The overdose of the chemical came about because of a calculation error. Major had to destroy and rebuild the pier and sued State for damages and State filed a cross-complaint alleging that Moffatt did not use reasonable care in the approval of the design. Three attempts at pleads were made and it was determined that Moffat was not in privity of contract with Major or State due to State being subjected to the economic loss rule. Court Decision: The court ruled that State could not sue for equitable indemnity or contribution based on the fact that there was no evidence that Moffatt owed a duty of care or that Moffatt was negligent. The court also determined that there was no contractual relationship between State and Major and that a person or other property was not damaged. Based on the two core findings, all cross complaints made by State are disregarded and State is found to be solely responsible for the damages. Moffatt is also awarded costs on the appeal. Further Actions: This case was the last appealed case of the series and therefore, no other actions followed. This is because the judge affirmed the case as â€Å"an order sustaining demurrer without leave to amend†. This statement means that the plaintiff cannot amend the complaint. Commentary: Opinion of Case The case seems to be strait forward with the fact that State is at fault for the

Mineral Particles Derived From Rocks Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Introduction Dirts are composed of five chief constituents ( Sinha and Shrivastava, 2000 ) : mineral atoms derived from stones by enduring ; organic stuffs – humus from dead and disintegrating works stuff ; dirt H2O – in which alimentary elements are dissolved ; dirt air – both C dioxide and O ; and populating beings including bacteriums that help works decomposition. We will write a custom essay sample on Mineral Particles Derived From Rocks Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Soils differ in their birthrate degrees, because they have different proportions of these constituents and because the mineral atoms have been affected to different grades by enduring. Age of dirt minerals, predominating temperatures, rainfall, leaching and dirty physico-chemistry are the chief factors which determine how much a peculiar dirt will endure ( Sinha and Shrivastava, 2000 ) . Soil therefore, is of import to everyone either straight or indirectly. It is the natural organic structures on which agricultural merchandises grow and it has delicate ecosystem ( Sinha and Shrivastava, 2000 ) . South Africa ranks among the states with the highest rate of income inequality in the universe ( Aliber, 2009 ) . Compared to other in-between income states, it has highly high degrees of absolute poorness and nutrient insecurity menace ( FAO, 2009 ) . As portion of this, a possible subscriber to nutrient security might be small-scale agricultural production. Aliber ( 2009 ) indicated that input support aiming smallholder husbandmans could hike production and nutrient security. Use of uncultivated cultivable lands and subsistence agribusiness might be one option to lend to incomes and/or nest eggs, every bit good as to promote nutrient variegation ( Altman et al. , 2009 ) . Land with high agricultural suitableness is considered to hold greater long-run security with respects to both agricultural production and development. From a planning position, high agricultural flexibleness is hence considered an appropriate step of high quality agricultural land that is extremely productive and fertile. Merely a little proportion of universe ‘s dirts have a really good degree of birthrate, most of which have merely good to medium birthrate and some have really low birthrate, and are frequently referred to as fringy dirts ( Ashman and Puri, 2002 ) . Well-known fertile dirts are deep alluvial dirts formed from river clay, organic matter- rich dirts on loess stuff, alimentary rich Vertisols and volcanic dirts ( Brady and Weil, 2004 ) . Under hapless direction, dirt birthrate can be earnestly depleted and dirts may go useless for agribusiness. 2.2. SOIL PHYSICO-CHEMISTRY Soil is a natural medium on which agricultural merchandises grow and it is dependent on several factors such as birthrate to be considered productive ( Shah et al. , 2011 ) . The birthrate of the dirt is depended on concentration of dirt foods, organic and inorganic stuffs and H2O. These soil physico-chemical belongingss are classified as being physical, chemical and biological, which greatly influence dirt birthrate ( Ramaru et al. , 2000 ) . To pull off dirt birthrate, cognition and apprehension of these belongingss is required ( as discussed below ) . 2.2.1. Physical dirt belongingss ( I ) Dirt texture Soil texture refers to the comparative proportions of the assorted size groups of single atoms or grains in a dirt ( Rowell, 1994 ) . It is dependent on the mixture of the different atom sizes present in the dirt. Based on these different sizes, dirt atoms are classified as sand ( 0.05- 2mm ) , silt ( 0.002-0,5mm ) and clay ( lt ; 0,002mm ) ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Soil texture is arguably the individual most of import physical belongings of the dirt in footings of dirt birthrate, because it influences several other dirt belongingss including denseness, porousness, H2O and alimentary keeping, rate of organic affair decomposition, infiltration and cation exchange capacity ( Moberg et al. , 1999 ) . Clay particles keep larger measures of H2O and foods, because of their big surface countries ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . This belongings causes the puffiness and shrinkage of clay dirts, but merely those with smectitic group of clay minerals. The big surface country of clay atoms gives foods legion adhering sites particularly when the surface charge denseness is high, which is portion of the ground that mulct textured dirts have such high abilities to retain foods ( Velde, 1995 ) . The pores between clay atoms are really little and complex, so motion of both air and H2O is really slow ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Clay atoms are negatively charged because of their mineralogical composing. Dirts with such atoms normally have high CEC and can retain H2O and works foods ; therefore such dirts are considered to be fertile and good for works growing ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . The cognition of the proportions of different-sized atoms in dirts is critical to understand dirt behaviour and their direction. Since sand atoms are comparatively big, so are the nothingnesss between them, which promote free drainage of H2O and entry of air into the dirt ( Brady and Weil, 2002 ) . The deduction of free drainage in flaxen dirt is that dirt foods are easy washed down into the dirt and go unaccessible for usage by workss ( Brady and Weil, 2002 ) . Sandy dirts are considered non-cohesive and because of their big size, have low specific surface countries and therefore have low alimentary keeping capacity ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Sand atoms can keep small H2O due to low specific surface country and are prone to drought, hence have a really low CEC and birthrate position ( Petersen et al. , 1996 ) . The pores between silt atoms are much smaller than those in sand, so silt retains more H2O and foods ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Soils dominated by silt atoms hence have a higher birthrate position than sandy dirts and provides favourable conditions for works growing when other growing factors are favourable ( Miller and Donahue, 1992 ) . ( two ) Dirt construction The term dirt construction refers to the agreement of dirt atoms into sums ( Six et al. , 2000 ) . Dirt construction is affected by biological activities, organic affair, and cultivation patterns ( Rowell, 1994 ) . It influences soil H2O motion and keeping, eroding, alimentary recycling, sealing and crusting of the dirt surface, together with aeration and dirt ‘s structural stableness, root incursion and harvest output ( Lupwayi et al. , 2001 ) . Dirt construction can be platy, prismatic, farinaceous, crumbly, columnar and blocky ( RCEP, 1996 ) . An ideal dirt construction for works growing is frequently described as farinaceous or crumb-like, because it provides good motion for air and H2O through a assortment of different pore sizes and it besides affects root incursion ( RCEP, 1996 ) . An ideal dirt construction is besides stable and immune to eroding ( Duiker et al. , 2003 ) . Organic affair and humification procedures improve structural stableness, and can reconstruct debauched dirt constructions ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Therefore it is critical to return or add organic stuff to the dirt and to keep its biological activity in order to heighten dirt construction for works growing. Favorable dirt construction and high sum stableness are hence critical to bettering dirt birthrate, increasing agronomic productiveness, heightening porousness and diminishing erodibility. ( three ) Water keeping capacity Water keeping capacity refers to the measure of H2O that the dirt is capable of hive awaying for usage by workss ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Soil H2O is held in, and flows through pore infinites in dirts. Soil H2O can be described into the undermentioned phases: gravitational, capillary, and hygroscopic, based upon the energy with which H2O is held by the dirt solids, which in bend governs their behaviour and handiness to workss ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Water keeping capacity is an of import factor in the pick of workss or harvests to be grown and in the design and direction of irrigation systems ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . The entire sum of H2O available to workss turning in field dirts is a map of the rooting deepness of the works and amount of the H2O held between field capacity and wilting per centum in each of the skylines explored by the roots ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Field capacity is the sum of dirt wet or H2O content held in dirt after extra H2O has drained off and the rate of downward motion has materially decreased, which normally takes topographic point within 2-3 yearss after a rain or irrigation in pervious dirts of unvarying construction and texture ( Govers, 2002 ) . The ability of the dirt to supply H2O for workss is an of import birthrate characteristic ( RCEP, 1996 ) . The capacity for H2O storage varies, depending on dirt belongingss such as organic affair, dirt texture, bulk denseness, and dirt construction ( RCEP, 1996 ) . This is explained by the grade of dirt compression, where jobs will originate if inordinate compression occurs which would consequences in increased majority denseness, a lessening in porousness and aeration and hapless H2O drainage ( Gregory et al. , 2006 ) , all ensuing in hapless works growing. ( four ) Electrical Conductivity ( EC ) Soil electrical conduction ( EC ) , is the ability of dirt to carry on electrical current ( Doerge, 1999 ) . EC is expressed in milliSiemens per metre ( mS/m ) or centimeter ( cm/m ) . Traditionally, dirt scientists used EC to gauge dirt salt ( Doerge, 1999 ) . EC measurings besides have the potency for gauging fluctuation in some of the dirt physical belongingss such as dirt wet and porousness, in a field where dirt salt is non a job ( Farahani and Buchleiter, 2004 ) . Soil salt refers to the presence of major dissolved inorganic solutes in the dirt aqueous stage, which consist of soluble and readily dissoluble salts including charged species ( e.g. , Na+ , K+ , Mg+2, Ca+2, Cla?’ , HCO3a?’ , NO3a?’ , SO4a?’2 and CO3a?’2 ) , non-ionic solutes, and ions that combine to organize ion braces ( Smith and Doran, 1996 ) . Salt tolerances are normally given in footings of the phase of works growing over a scope of electrical conduction ( EC ) degrees. EC greater than 4dS/m are considered saline ( Munshower, 1994 ) . Salt sensitive workss may be affected by conductions below 4dS/m and salt tolerant species may non be impacted by concentrations of up to twice this maximal agricultural tolerance bound ( Munshower, 1994 ) . Electrical conduction is the ability of a solution to convey an electrical current. The conductivity of electricity in dirt takes topographic point through the moisture-filled pores that occur between single dirt atoms. Therefore, the EC of dirt is determined by the undermentioned dirt belongingss ( Doerge, 1999 ) : . Porosity, where the greater dirt porousness, the more easy electricity is conducted. Soil with high clay content has higher porousness than sandier dirt. Compaction usually increases dirt EC. . Water content, dry dirt is much lower in conduction than damp dirt. . Salinity degree, increasing concentration of electrolytes ( salts ) in dirt H2O will dramatically increase dirt EC. . Cation exchange capacity ( CEC ) , mineral dirt incorporating high degrees of organic affair ( humus ) and/or 2:1 clay minerals such as montmorillonite, illite, or vermiculite hold a much higher ability to retain positively charged ions ( such as Ca, Mg, K, Na, NH4, or H ) than dirt missing these components. The presence of these ions in the moisture-filled dirt pores will heighten dirt EC in the same manner that salt does. . Temperature, as temperature decreases toward the stop deading point of H2O, dirt EC decreases somewhat. Below freeze, dirt pores become progressively insulated from each other and overall dirt EC declines quickly. Plants are harmfully affected, both physically and chemically, by extra salts in some dirts and by high degrees of exchangeable Na in others. Dirty with an accretion of exchangeable Na are frequently characterized by hapless tilth and low permeableness and hence low dirt birthrate position, doing them unfavourable for works growing ( Munshower, 1994 ) . ( V ) Bulk Density ( BD ) Soil majority denseness is defined as the mass of dry dirt ( g ) per unit volume ( cm3 ) and is routinely used as a step of dirt compression ( Gregory et al. , 2006 ) . The entire volume includes atom volume, inter-particle nothingness volume and internal pore volume ( Gregory et al. , 2006 ) . Bulk denseness takes into history solid infinite every bit good as pore infinite ( Greenland, 1998 ) . Therefore soils that are porous or well-aggregated ( e.g. clay dirt ) will hold lower majority densenesss than dirts that are non aggregated ( sand ) ( Greenland, 1998 ) . Plant roots can non perforate compacted dirt every bit freely as they would in non-compacted dirt, which limits their entree to H2O and foods present in sub-soil and inhibits their growing ( Hagan et al. , 2010 ) . Compacted dirt requires more frequent applications of irrigation and fertiliser to prolong works growing, which can increase overflow and food degrees in overflow ( Gregory et al. , 2006 ) . The majority denseness of dirt depends greatly on the dirt ‘s mineral make up and the grade of compression. High bulk denseness normally indicate a poorer environment for root growing, reduced aeration and unwanted alterations in hydrologic map, such as decreased infiltration ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . The presence of dirt organic affair, which is well lighter than mineral dirt, can assist diminish bulk denseness and thereby heightening dirt birthrate ( Hagan et al. , 2010 ) . 2.2.2. Soil Chemical belongingss Soil chemical belongingss which include the concentrations of foods, cations, anions, ion exchange reactions and oxidation-reduction belongingss, but for the intent of this survey focal point will be based on belongingss that have an deduction on dirt birthrate including: ( I ) Soil pH Soil pH is an of import dirt belongings that affects several dirt reactions and procedures and is defined as a step of the sourness or alkalinity of the dirt ( Bohn, 2001 ) . It has considerable consequence on dirt procedures including ion exchange reactions and alimentary handiness ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Soil pH is measured on a graduated table of 0 to 14, where a pH of 7.0 is considered impersonal, readings higher than 7.0 are alkalic, and readings lower than 7.0 are considered acidic ( McGuiness, 1993 ) . Most workss are tolerant of a pH scope of 5.5-6.5 which is near impersonal pH scope ( Bohn, 2001 ) . Soil pH is one of the most of import features of dirt birthrate, because it has a direct impact on alimentary handiness and works growing. Most foods are more soluble in acid dirts than in impersonal or somewhat alkalic dirts ( Bohn, 2001 ) . In strongly acidic soils the handiness of macronutrients ( Ca, Mg, K, P, N and S ) every bit good as Mo and B is reduced. In contrast, handiness of micronutrient cations ( Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Al ) is increased by low dirt pH, even to the extent of toxicity of higher workss and micro-organisms ( Bohn, 2001 ) . The pH of a dirt is besides reported to impact so many other dirt belongingss ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) , including alimentary handiness, effects on dirt beings, Fungis thrive in acidic dirts, CEC and works penchants of either acidic or alkalic dirts. Most workss prefer alkaline dirts, but there are a few which need acidic dirts and will decease if placed in an alkaline environment ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . ( two ) Cation Exchange Capacity ( CEC ) Cation exchange capacity is defined as the amount of the sum of the exchangeable cations that a dirt can keep or adsorb ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . A cation is a positively charged ion and most foods cations are: Ca2+ , Mg2+ , K + , NH4+ , Zn2+ , Cu2+ , and Mn2+ . These cations are in the dirt solution and are in dynamic equilibrium with the cations adsorbed on the surface of clay and organic affair ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Clay and organic affair are the chief beginnings of CEC ( Peinemann et al. , 2002 ) . The more clay and organic affair ( humus ) a dirt contains, the higher its CEC and the greater the possible birthrate of that dirt. CEC varies harmonizing to the type of clay. It is highest in montmorillonite clay, lowest in to a great extent weathered kaolinite clay and somewhat higher in the lupus erythematosus weathered illite clay ( Peinemann et al. , 2002 ) . Sand atoms have no capacity to interchange cations because it has no electrical charge ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . CEC is used as a step of dirt alimentary keeping capacity, and the capacity to protect groundwater from cation taint ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . It buffers fluctuations in alimentary handiness and dirt pH ( Bergaya and Vayer, 1997 ) . Plants obtain many of their foods from dirt by an electrochemical procedure called cation exchange. This procedure is the key to understanding dirt birthrate ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Foods that are held by charges on a dirt are termed ‘exchangeable ‘ as they become readily available to workss ( Rowell, 1994 ) .The higher the CEC of a dirt, the more foods it is likely to keep and the higher will be its birthrate degree ( Fullen and Catt, 2004 ) . Factors impacting cation exchange capacity The factors impacting cation exchange capacity include the undermentioned ( Brady and Weil 1999 ) , dirt texture, dirt humus content, nature of clay and dirt reaction. Soil texture influences the CEC of dirts in a manner that it increases when dirt ‘s per centum of clay additions i.e. the finer the dirt texture, the higher the CEC as indicated in Table 2. CEC depends on the nature of clay minerals present, since each mineral has its ain capacity to exchange and keep cations e.g. the CEC of a dirt dominated by vermiculite is much higher than the CEC of another dirt dominated by kaolinite, as vermiculite is high activity clay unlike kaolinte which is low activity clay. When the pH of dirt additions, more H+ ions dissociate from the clay minerals particularly kaolinite, therefore the CEC of dirt dominated by kaolinite besides increases. CEC varies harmonizing to the type of dirt. Humus, the terminal merchandise of decomposed organic affair, has the highest CEC value because organic affair colloids have big measures of negative charges. Humus has a CEC two to five times greater than montmorillonite clay and up to 30 times greater than kaolinite c lay, so is really of import in bettering dirt birthrate. Table 2.1: CEC values for different dirt textures ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) Dirt texture CEC scope ( meq/100g dirt ) Sand 2-4 Sandy loam 2-12 Loam 7-16 Silt loam 9-26 Clay, clay loam 4-60 ( three ) Organic Matter The importance of dirt organic affair in relation to dirty birthrate and physical status is widely recognized in agribusiness. However, organic affair contributes to the birthrate or productiveness of the dirt through its positive effects on the physical, chemical and biological belongingss of the dirt ( Rowell, 1994 ) , as follows: physical – stabilizes dirt construction, improves H2O keeping features, lowers bulk denseness, dark colour may change thermic belongingss ; chemical – higher CEC, acts as a pH buffer, ties up metals, interacts with biological – supplies energy and body-building components for dirt beings, increases microbic populations and their activities, beginning and sink for foods, ecosystem resiliency, affects dirt enzymes. Soil organic affair consists of a broad scope of organic substances, including populating beings, carboneous remains of beings which one time occupied the dirt, and organic compounds produced by current and past metamorphosis of the dirt ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Soil organic affair plays a critical function in dirt procedures and is a cardinal component of incorporate dirt birthrate direction ( ISFM ) ( Brady and Weil, 2004 ) . Organic affair is widely considered to be the individual most of import index of dirt birthrate and productiveness ( Rowell, 1994 ) . It consists chiefly of decayed or disintegrating works and animate being residues and is a really of import dirt constituent. Benefits of Organic affair in dirt harmonizing to Ashman and Puri, ( 2002 ) include: increasing the dirt ‘s cation exchange capacity and moving as nutrient for dirt beings from bacteriums to worms and is an of import constituent in the food and C rhythms. Organic affair, like clay, has a high surface country and is negatively charged with a high CEC, doing it an first-class provider of foods to workss. In add-on, as organic affair decomposes, it releases foods such as N, P and S that are bound in the organic affair ‘s construction, basically copying a slow release fertiliser ( Myers, 1995 ) . Organic affair can besides keep big sums of H2O, which helps foods move from dirt to works roots ( Mikkuta, 2004 ) . An of import feature of organic affair in dirt birthrate is C: N ratio. The C: N ratio in organic affair of cultivable surface skylines normally ranges from 8:1 to 15:1, the average being near 12:1 ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . The C: N ratio in organic residues applied to dirts is of import for two grounds: intense competition among the microorganisms for available dirt N which occurs when residues holding a high Degree centigrade: N ratio are added to dirts and it besides helps find their rate of decay and the rate at which N is made available to workss ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . ( four ) Plant Foods Plants require 13 works foods ( Table 2.2 ) ( micro and macro foods ) for their growing. Each is every bit of import to the works, yet each is required in immensely different sums ( Ronen, 2007 ) . Essential elements are chemical elements that workss need in order to finish their normal life rhythm ( Scoones and Toulhim, 1998 ) . The maps of these elements in the works can non be fulfilled by another, therefore doing each component necessity for works growing and development ( Scoones and Toulhim, 1998 ) . Essential foods are divided into macro and micronutrients as illustrated in Table 3. Macronutrients are those that are required in comparatively high measures for works growing and can be distinguish into two bomber groups, primary and secondary 1s, ( Uchida and Silva, 2000 ) . The primary macro-elements are most often required for works growing and besides needed in the greatest entire measure by workss. For most harvests, secondary macro foods are needed in lesser sums than the primary foods. The 2nd group of works foods which are micronutrients are needed merely in hint sums ( Scoones and Toulhim, 1998 ) . These micronutrients are required in really little sums, but they are merely every bit of import to works development and profitable harvest production as the major foods ( Ronen, 2007 ) . Categorization Component Function in works growing Beginning Lack symptoms and toxicities Macro foods – Primary Nitrogen ( N ) Chlorophyll and Protein formation Air/Soil, applied fertilizers Slow growing, stunted workss, greensickness, low protein content Phosphorus ( P ) Photosynthesis, Stimulates early growing and root formation, hastens adulthood Dirt and applied fertilizers Slow growing, delayed harvest adulthood, purple green colour of foliages Potassium ( K ) Photosynthesis and nzyme activity, amylum and sugar formation, root growing Dirt and applied fertilizers Slow growing, Reduced disease or plague opposition, development of white and xanthous musca volitanss on foliages Macro foods – secondary Calcium ( Ca ) Cell growing and constituent of cell wall Dirt Weakened roots, decease of workss ‘ turning points, unnatural dark green visual aspect on leaf Magnesium ( Mg ) Enzyme activation, photosynthesis and influence Nitrogen metamorphosis Dirt Interveinal greensickness in older foliages, curling of foliages, stunted growing, Sulfur ( S ) Amino acids, proteins and nodule formation Dirt and carnal manure Interveinal greensickness on maize foliages, retarded growing, delayed adulthood and visible radiation viridities to yellowish colour in immature foliages Micronutrients – necessity Iron ( Fe ) Photosynthesis, chlorophyll synthesis, component of assorted enzymes and proteins Dirt Interveinal greensickness, yellowing of foliages between venas, twig dieback, decease of full hitch or workss Manganese ( Mn ) Enzyme activation, metamorphosis of N and organic acids, formation of vitamins and dislocation of saccharides Dirt Interveinal greensickness of immature foliages, step of picket green colour with darker colour next to venas Zinc ( Zn ) Enzymes and auxins constituent, protein synthesis, used in formation of growing endocrines Dirt Mottled foliages, dieback branchlets, lessening in root length Copper ( Cu ) Enzyme activation, accelerator for respiration Dirt Scrawny growing, hapless pigmentation, wilting of foliages Boron ( B ) Reproduction Dirt Thickened, curled, wilted and greensick foliages ; reduced blossoming Molybdenum ( Mo ) Nitrogen arrested development ; nitrate decrease and works growing Dirt Stunting and deficiency of energy ( induced by nitrogen lack ) , searing, cupping or turn overing of foliages Chlorine ( Cl ) Root growing, photosynthetic reactions Dirt Wilting followed by greensickness, inordinate ramification of sidelong roots, bronzing of foliages Extra foods Carbon ( C ) Component of saccharides and photosynthesis Air/ Organic affair Hydrogen ( H ) Maintains osmotic balance and component of saccharides Water/Organic affair Oxygen ( O ) Component of saccharides and necessary for respiration Air/Water/ Organic affair Table 2.2: Essential works elements, their beginnings and function in workss ( Ronen,2007 ) Lack of any of these indispensable foods will retard works development ( Brady and Weil, 2004 ) . Deficiencies and toxicities of foods in dirt present unfavourable conditions for works growing, such as: hapless growing, yellowing of the foliages and perchance the decease of the works as illustrated in Table 3 ( Ahmed et al. , 1997 ) . Therefore proper alimentary direction is required to accomplish upper limit works growing, maximal economic and growing response by the harvest, and besides for minimal environmental impact. In add-on to the foods listed supra, workss require C, H, and O, which are extracted from air and H2O to do up the majority of works weight ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Achieving balance between the alimentary demands of workss and the alimentary militias in dirts is indispensable for keeping dirt birthrate and high outputs, forestalling environmental taint and debasement, and prolonging agricultural production over the long term. 2.2.3. Soil Biological belongingss ( I ) Soil beings Soil beings include largely microscopic populating beings such as bacteriums and Fungis which are the foundation of a healthy dirt because they are the primary decomposer of organic affair ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Soil beings are grouped into two viz. soil micro-organisms and dirt macro beings ( Table 2.3 ) . Table 2.3: Dirt Macro and micro-organisms and their function in works and dirt ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) Categorization Organisms Function in works and/or dirt Beginning Microorganisms Bacterias Decomposition of organic affair Soil surface and humus atoms Actinomycetes Beginning of protein and enhance dirt birthrate Surface beds of grass lands Fungus kingdoms Fix atmospheric N and enhance dirt birthrate Soil ( without organic affair ) Alga Add organic affair to dirty, better aeration of swamp dirts, and repair atmospheric N Moist dirts Macro-organisms Nematodes They can be applied to harvests in big measures as a biological insect powder Dirt and works roots Earthworms Enhance dirt birthrate and structural stableness Aerated dirts Ants and white ants Soil development Dominant in tropical dirts Dirt can incorporate 1000000s of beings that feed off disintegrating stuff such as old works stuff, mulch A ; unrefined compost ( Ashman and Puri, 2002 ) , Microorganisms constitute lt ; 0.5 % of the dirt mass yet they have a major impact on dirt belongingss and procedures. 60-80 % of the entire dirt metamorphosis is due to the microflora ( Alam, 2001 ) . Micro-organisms, including Fungis and bacteriums, affect chemical exchanges between roots and dirt and act as modesty of dirt foods ( Kiem and Kandeler, 1997 ) . Soil organic affair is the chief nutrient and energy beginning of dirt micro-organisms ( Ashman and Puri, 2002 ) . Through decomposition of organic affair, micro-organisms take up their nutrient elements. Organic affair besides serves as a beginning of energy for both macro and micro beings and helps in executing assorted good maps in dirt, ensuing in extremely productive dirt ( Mikutta et al. , 2004 ) . Macro-organisms such as insects, other arthropods, angleworms and roundworms live in the dirt and have an of import influence on dirt birthrate ( Amezketa, 1999 ) . They ingest soil stuff and relocate works stuff and signifier tunnels. The effects of these activities are variable. Macro-organisms improve aeration, porousness, infiltration, aggregative stableness, litter commixture, improved N and C stabilisation, C turnover and carbonate decrease and N mineralization, alimentary handiness and metal mobility ( Amezketa, 1999 ; Winsome and McColl, 1998 and Brown et al. , 2000 ) . The assorted groups of dirt beings do non populate independently of each other, but form an interlocked system more or less in equilibrium with the environment ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Their activity in dirt depend on wet content, temperature, dirt enzymes, disintegration of dirt minerals and dislocation of toxic chemicals. All have a enormous function in the development of dirt birthrate ( Alam, 2001 ) . Their actions involve the formation of structural systems of the dirts which help in the addition of agricultural productiveness ( Alam, 2001 ) . 2.3. SOIL CLAY MINERALOGY The clay fraction of dirt is dominated by clay minerals which control of import dirt chemical belongingss including sorption features of dirts ( Dixon and Schulze, 2002 ) . Minerals are of course happening inorganic compounds, with defined chemical and physical belongingss ( Velde, 1995 ) . Minerals that are formed in the deepnesss of a vent are called primary minerals ( Pal et al. , 2000 ) . Feldspar, biotite, vitreous silica and hornblende are illustrations of primary minerals. These minerals and the stones made from them are frequently non stable when exposed to the weathering agents at the surface of the Earth ( Dixon and Schulze, 2002 ) . These stones are broken down ( weathered ) continuously into little pieces by exposure to physical and chemical weathering procedures ( Dixon and Schulze, 2002 ) . Some of the elements that are released during weathering, reform and crystallise in a different construction organizing secondary minerals ( Melo et al. , 2002 ) . Secondary minerals tend to be much smaller in atom size than primary minerals, and are most normally found in the clay fraction of dirts ( Guggenheim and Martin, 1995 ) . Soil clay fractions frequently contain a broad scope of secondary minerals such as kaolinite, montmorillonite and aluminium hydrated oxides, whereas the sand or silt atoms of dirts are dominated by comparatively inert primary minerals. The clay fraction is normally dominated by secondary minerals which are more chemically active and lend the most to dirty birthrate ( Melo et al. , 2002 ) . Two major secondary mineral groups, clay minerals and hydrated oxides, tend to rule. These groups can look in assorted mixtures frequently in association with dirt organic affair ( Brady and Weil, 2004 ) . Clay minerals are hydrated aluminum phyllosilicates, sometimes with variable sums of Fe, Mg, alkali metals, alkalic Earth metals and other cations, ( Joussein et al. , 2005 ) . They are derived from enduring of stones and are really common in all right grained sedimentary stones such as shale, mudstone and siltstone and in all right grained metamorphous slate and phyllite ( Van der Merwe et al. , 2002 ) . There are besides non-clay minerals such as vitreous silica and calcite which are derived from enduring of pyrogenic stones, ( Van der Merwe et al. , 2002 ) . Clay minerals are indispensable stages in dirt chemical science and play highly of import functions in ion exchange reactions ( Brigatti et al. , 1996 ; Barrow, 1999 ) . Soils which are texturally and chemically similar may differ in productiveness or birthrate due to the presence or absence of little sums of peculiar clay minerals ( Van der Merwe et al. , 2002 ) . For illustration, smectite clays are various and strong cationic money changers and their presence can greatly act upon the mobility of potentially toxic elements. Vermiculite has been widely used in the survey of short- to medium-term fluctuations ( seasonal and one-year ) in dirt procedures ( Monterroso and Macias, 1998 ) . Soil clay mineralogy plays a critical function in dirt birthrate since mineral surfaces serve as possible sites for alimentary storage ( Tucker, 1999 ) . However, different types of dirt minerals hold and retain differing sums of foods ( Velde, 1995 ) . Therefore, it is critical to cognize the types of minerals that make up a dirt so as to foretell the grade to which the dirt can retain and provide foods to workss. Knowledge of the clay mineralogical composing and the different clay minerals present in dirt is of import in understanding usage, and direction of the dirt, and in finding the agricultural potencies of dirts. 2.3.1. Happening of clay and clay minerals Claies and clay minerals occur under a reasonably limited scope of geologic conditions ( Velde et al. , 2003 ) . The environments of formation include dirt skylines, Continental and marine deposits, geothermic Fieldss, volcanic sedimentations, and enduring stone formations ( Joussein et al. , 2005 ) . Most clay minerals form where stones are in contact with H2O, air, or steam ( Hillier, 1995 ) . Examples of these state of affairss include enduring bowlders on a hillside, deposits in sea or lake undersides, profoundly inhumed deposits incorporating pure H2O, and stones in contact with H2O heated by magma ( liquefied stone ) ( Hillier, 1995 ) . A primary demand for the formation of clay minerals is the presence of H2O. Soil clay minerals ‘ formation occurs in many different environments, including the weathering environment, the sedimentary environment, and the digenetic-hydrothermal environment ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Clay minerals composed of the more soluble compounds e.g. smectites are formed in environments where ions can roll up ( e.g. in a dry clime, in a ill drained dirt, in the ocean, or in saline lakes ) ( Velde 1995 ) . Clay minerals composed of less soluble compounds ( for illustration, kaolinite and halloysite ) signifier in more dilute H2O such as that found in environments that undergo terrible leaching ( for illustration, a brow in the wet Torrid Zones ) , where merely meagerly soluble elements such as aluminium and Si can stay ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Illite and chlorite are known to organize copiously in the diagenetic-hydrothermal environment by reaction from smectite ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . 2.3.2. Weathering of minerals The minerals ‘ parent stuffs form in the crystallization of liquefied stone stuff: these are known as primary minerals, and include olivine, quartz, feldspar and hornblende. Primary minerals are non stable when exposed to H2O, air current and extremes of temperature ( Hillier, 1995 ) . Some of the elements that are released during enduring reform and crystallise in a different construction: these are the secondary minerals, and include vermiculite, montmorillonite and kaolinite ( Hillier, 1995 ) . Secondary minerals tend to be much smaller in atom size than primary minerals, and are most normally found in the clay fraction of dirts. As minerals weather, they lose Si ( as soluble silicic acid ) , taking to increasing proportions of aluminates in weather-beaten clays, such as kaolinite. Aluminium hydrated oxide species are amphoteric. The rate and nature of the enduring procedure really much depends on climatic conditions. Intense enduring produced in a hot and damp clime can take to major alterations in mineral construction and the transition to hydrated oxides. There are four stages to be considered in the system that model the formation of clay minerals by the weathering of flinty stones as the clays have a definite composing: K-feldspar, Muscovite ( illite ) , Kaolinite and gibbsite: 3KAlSi3O8 ) +2H+ +12H2O i‚ «2K+ +6Si ( OH ) 4 +KAl3Si3O10 ( OH ) 2 ( K- Feldspar ) ( Illite ) †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ [ Eqn. 2.1 ] 2KAl3Si3O10 ( OH ) 2 + 3H2O + 2H+ i‚ «2K+ + 3Al2Si2O5 ( OH ) 4 ( Illite ) ( Kaolinite ) †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ . [ Eqn. 2.2 ] Al2Si2O5+ ( OH ) 4 5H2O i‚ «iˆ 2Si ( OH ) 4 + 2Al ( OH ) 3 ( Kaolinite ) ( Gibbsite ) †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ . [ Eqn. 2.3 ] How to cite Mineral Particles Derived From Rocks Environmental Sciences Essay, Essay examples

London free essay sample

Contentss Prehistory_____________________________________________________ 2 London is the largest metropolis in Europe_________________________________ 3 Cultural life of London___________________________________________ 5 The features of British humanistic disciplines and letters__________________________ 5 Theatre and cinema______________________________________________ 7 Music________________________________________________________ 8 Literature_____________________________________________________ 9 The all right arts__________________________________________________ 11 Museums of London____________________________________________ 12 Parks of London_______________________________________________ 13 Housing_____________________________________________________ 14 Traffic_______________________________________________________ 16 Bibliography__________________________________________________ 18 Prehistory Prehistory Two thousand old ages ago there was an Iron Age Celtic civilization throughout the British Isles. It seems that the Celts, who had been geting from Europe from the 8th century BC onwards, intermingled with the peoples who were already at that place. We know that spiritual sites that had been built long before the reaching of the Celts continued to be used in the Gaelic period. For people in Britain today, the main significance of the prehistoric period is its sense of enigma. This sense finds its focal point most easy in the amazing monumental # 8211 ; architecture of this period, the remains of which exist throughout the state. Wiltshire, in south-western England, has two dramatic illustrations: Silbury Hill, the largest burial hill in Europe, and Stonehenge. The population fell rapidly during the 19th and 20th century’s when residential housing was demolished in favour of new office buildings. It is now the case that there are 33% more workers than residents in the area. Having suffered heavy damage during World War II very few of the original structures remain. It is important to mention that St Paul’s cathedral did remain standing and there are many well-published photographs of St Paul’s surrounded by buildings which were on fire or completely destroyed, most notably ‘St Paul’s Survives’ taken by Herbert Mason. Despite the destruction caused by the war it did allow for mass rebuilding of larger scale and more modern developments. It is not too difficult to spot the difference between pre and post war developments, predominantly because pre war buildings are often much smaller. Many people suggest that Paternoster Square outside St Paul’s is an example of how the post war trends might have now been reversed. This view is largely due to the ‘traffic free, public open space’ and ‘classical architecture, using traditional materials’ that now forms the square. For the comparison purposes of answering this question I will be using the Lloyds Building located on Lime Street in London designed by Richard Rogers and completed in 1986. The insurance company Lloyds of London commissioned it in the 1970’s because they needed more space as they continued to expand. Lloyds had spread to three buildings across both Leadenhall and Lime Streets. This included the Royal Mail building and a purpose built office for Lloyds that been designed by the architect Terence Heysham5. This office had a considerably more conservative and classical look and was arguably much more suited to the location than the new Lloyds building. It had been planned to be adequate for Lloyds’ purposes until the 21st century but this wasn’t the case. The building has since been demolished and is the site of the modern Willis Building. The unusual design of the Lloyds building with all of the services located on the outside has certainly caused many conflicting opinions. This has been labelled ‘Bowellism’ and is a method used to create as much space and flexibility as possible for the interior. My general opinion of ‘services’ is grey, cold and they ought to be hidden within the walls. When I first set eyes on the building, thoughts of industrial factories and multi story car parks entered my mind. This is due to the large amounts of metal that forms the majority of the exterior. I believe the building looks as though it is performing a function, like a power station, not a useable office building. I am by no means against modern development in the City of London, however I believe the Lloyds Building is not suited to the City of London. The Willis building on the other hand is smart, light and looks like it means business. The same could be said for the closely located Gherkin and Shard buildings. The development can still be unusual and previously untried, but in my opinion shout not be outrageous and provoking. Having said this though, I believe an architect would feel he had failed if no one had been provoked by his work. A particular building or site distinguishes many cities. For example the Eiffel tower is the symbol for Paris and one may say Buckingham Palace is the symbol for London. This means that a city’s identity can be portrayed through its architecture and I believe that a building like the Lloyds building is not appropriate for the prestigious City of London. The extent to which the Lloyds Building is a modern success can definitely be questioned. One of the aims of locating the ugly serviceable components on the outside is that costs are saved on repairs because everything is accessible. However the cost of cleaning the external steel is so extortionate and frequent that the benefits are outweighed completely. Also, now that it is Grade 1 listed it means alternations are extremely hard to make. The whole point of the design was that the building could be changed and re-ordered like Meccano. This means it can no longer even achieve one of the primary objectives that were in mind when it was built. This is one of the main reasons I believe it does not represent a ‘successful modern property development’. In the summer of 2013 it was reported: ‘The outgoing chief executive of Lloyd’s of London blamed the design of the insurer’s headquarters for its high maintenance costs’ 6and that Lloyds are considering terminating their lease when the next break clause occurs in 2021. With regards to ‘respecting the historic sense of identity’ in the City of London, I believe it is completely unsuitable and looks out of palace in the ‘square mile’. It doesn’t necessarily comply with the description of the City that Glinert gives us either. Glinert portrays a medieval scene with bustling streets full of culture. The Lloyds building is certainly an attraction, and people travel a long way to visit it, but as far as expressing London’s identity goes it’s hopeless. Many people would argue that it shows the City of London is able to adapt and progress in new and exciting ways. An article from the Financial Times in July 2013 read ‘†¦the subsequent development of the city has shown the Lloyds Building to be a brilliant and resilient sculptural masterpiece which manages to maintain a balance between its dense, historic surroundings, its transplanted historic interiors and the rapidly changing cityscape around it7. ’ This quote seemingly contradicts my opinion regarding the building and explains that it is in tune with its surroundings despite its very contrary styling. I find the design almost rather sinister in comparison to other modern developments such as the Gherkin. Whilst I admire the Lloyds Building I don’t think that it has the right character for the City of London. Whilst even the newest skyscrapers don’t blend in with the City’s past heritage, they don’t blot it either. They look prestigious and add a new and exciting vibe to the area at the same time as not only respecting but also improving the overall identity of the City. There is no doubt that the Lloyds building was designed to stand out and be  significant, but it is a futuristic mess of twisted metal and concrete that doesn’t have a place in London. I have also done some research and noticed that there haven’t been any further developments exposing the service components since the Lloyds building was finished. This evidently means that it hasn’t been a great accomplishment and could almost be viewed as an expensive experiment. I was surprised when it was granted Grade 1 listed status in 2011. English Heritage describes it as ‘universally recognised as one of the key buildings of the modern epoch’. Whilst it is significant and modern I can’t argue that it conforms to Glinert’s identification of London ‘seeping with history, filled with ancient churches and medieval alleyways’. 8 It could easily be placed in any other city in the world and it would still be significant for the same reasons and would take nothing of London with it. Due to the reasons I have presented I cannot accept that the Lloyds Building delivers successful modern property development or that it respects the historic sense of identity that is so important to the City of London.

SBAR Research free essay sample

Background: The Joint Commission International Patient Safety Goal 2 states that effective communication between health care workers needs to improve. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of SBAR (situation, background, assessment, recommendation) on the incidence of serious adverse events (SAE’s) in hospital wards. Method: In 16 hospital wards nurses were trained to use SBAR to communicate with physicians in cases of deteriorating patients. A pre (July 2010 and April 2011) and post (June 2011 and March 2012) intervention study was performed. Patient records were checked for SBAR items up to 48 h before a SAE. A questionnaire was used to measure nurse–physician communication and collaboration. Results: During 37,239 admissions 207 SAE’s occurred and were checked for SBAR items, 425 nurses were questioned. Post intervention all four SBAR elements were notated more frequently in patient records in case of a SAE (from 4% to 35%; p 0. We will write a custom essay sample on SBAR Research or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 001), total score on the questionnaire increased in nurses (from 58 (range 31–97) to 64 (range 25–97); p 0. 001), the number of unplanned intensive care unit (ICU) admissions increased (from 13. 1/1000 to 14. 8/1000 admissions; relative risk ratio (RRR) = 50%; 95% CI 30–64; p = 0. 001) and unexpected deaths decreased (from 0. 99/1000 to 0. 34/1000 admissions; RRR = ? 227%; 95% CI ? 793 to ? 20; NNT 1656; p 0. 001). There was no difference in the number of cardiac arrest team calls. Conclusion: After introducing SBAR we found increased perception of effective communication and collaboration in nurses, an increase in unplanned ICU admissions and a decrease in unexpected deaths.  © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The Joint Commission International Patient Safety Goal number 2 (Standard IPSG 2) states that effective communication among health care workers has to improve. According to the Institute of Medicine the six aims in the 21st-century health care system are: safe, effective, patient-centred, timely, ef? cient and equitable. 2 Many potential barriers have been reported in nurse–physician communication such as lack of structure, hierarchy, language, culture, sex and difference in communication style. 3–5 Nurses tend to be more detailed in their communications whereas physicians use more brief statements. 4 In the context of critical events, nurses and ? A Spanish translated version of the abstract of this article appears as Appendix in the ? nal online version at http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. resuscitation. 2013. 03. 016. ? Corresponding author at: Antwerp University Hospital, Wilrijkstraat 10, 2650 Edegem, Belgium. E-mail addresses: koen. [emailprotected] ac. be, koen. de. [emailprotected] be (K. De Meester). 0300-9572/$ – see front matter  © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. resuscitation. 2013. 03. 016 physicians often communicate over the phone which makes these communications error-prone. 6 Up to 65% of serious adverse events (SAEs) include communication as a contributing factor. 7 Root cause analysis of SAEs on wards reveals failure in three domains. First, no observations are made for a prolonged period and/or changes in vital signs are not detected. Second, despite the recording of vital signs, clinical deterioration is not recognized and/or no action is taken. Finally, when deterioration is recognized and assistance sought, medical attention is delayed. This delay in receiving medical attention can originate from sub-optimal nurse–physician communication or collaboration. 8 In answer to these three domains of failure, rapid response systems (RRSs) have been widely introduced although they are not supported by a high level of evidence. It remains uncertain which elements of RRSs contribute most to patient outcome but there is growing awareness that the effect depends on the different components such as the ability to detect and interpret deterioration, to communicate clearly and to start the correct response without delay. 10 By implementing a standard observation protocol incorporating the modi? ed early warning score (MEWS), better and accurate patient observation and K. De Meester et al. / Resuscitation 84 (2013) 1192–1196 interpretation of abnormal vital signs was achieved in our hospital. The components â€Å"detection† and â€Å"interpretation† were improved. It remained unclear whether in cases of patient deterioration the nurse–physician communication was clear and provided the best information to optimize collaboration so physicians could respond without delay. Dr. Michael Leonard, physicianleader at Kaizer Permanente in Denver introduced standardised communication with the SBAR (situation, background, assessment, and recommendation) structure to optimize effective communication. 12,13 By using the SBAR tool nurses could be empowered to formulate a recommendation to a physician. This is only possible after formal assessment of the patient and knowing the situation and the background of the patient. We hypothesized that if nurses are better prepared before calling a physician and by structuring the communication, physicians should be better informed and able to prioritise in their work, give the best orders and take the right actions. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of standard SBAR communication in deteriorating patients on the perception of effective communication and collaboration between nurses and physicians and on the incidence of SAEs in adult hospital wards. 2. Method 2. 1. Design, setting and participants We investigated SAEs and conducted a questionnaire for nurses pre and post the introduction of SBAR in the Antwerp University Hospital (AUH). AUH is the tertiary referral hospital of the University of Antwerp and has one campus of 573 beds. AUH provides all medical and surgical specialties but has no beds for chronic or psychiatric hospitalization. In the research period there were 244 beds on nine medical wards including a 10-bed cardiac care unit, 205 beds on seven surgical wards including eight beds for medium care and 45 beds on ? ve intensive care units (ICUs). Of the 16 medical and surgical wards nine have one nurse and seven have two nurses during the night shift. A mobile team of two nurses and one nursing aid support these nurses each night shift. The hospital has a physician-led cardiac arrest team 24 h a day, seven days a week. No additional rapid response team is available. The pre intervention period was 10 months between July 2010 and April 2011, and the post intervention period was 10 months between May 2011 and March 2012. To measure perception of effective nurse–physician communication and collaboration, nurses and physicians were asked to respond to the â€Å"Communication, Collaboration and Critical Thinking Quality Patient Outcomes Survey Tool† (CCCT Tool) questionnaire by Vazirani et al. pre and post intervention. 14 The participants for this questionnaire were all nurses involved in the direct care for patients on medical and surgical wards. The face validity of the Dutch translation of the CCCT Tool was veri? ed by a staff nurse, one director of nursing and two physicians. Consensus on wording was achieved. The translation was then back-translated into English for validation by an academic quali? ed expert. The hospital admission and discharge registration system and the hospital registration for emergency calls were used to detect cases of SAEs. This included all patients older than 16 years without do not attempt resuscitation (DNAR) order who stayed for at least one night on a medical or surgical nursing unit during the study period. Patients with a DNAR code were excluded from the study because the outcome indicator â€Å"unexpected death† was de? ned as â€Å"death without pre-existing DNAR code†. 15 The Ethics Committee of the hospital approved the study (EC Nr 11/43/316) registered in Belgium under number B300201112705. Informed consent for Patients was waived as no therapeutic intervention was scheduled 1193 or in? uenced by the trial. Nurses participating in the questionnaire signed for informed consent. 2. 2. Intervention The intervention was the second step in the introduction of the afferent limb of a RRS. 9 The afferent limb of a RRS has the following components: patient observation, measurement of vital signs, patient assessment, recognition of clinical deterioration, call criteria for triggering a response and a policy to communicate with the health care workers of the efferent limb of the RRS. The ? rst step was introduced on 1 November 2009 and consisted of the Introduction of a standardised nurse observation protocol including the MEWS and a coloured graphical observation chart. 11 The MEWS includes 6 vital signs: heart rate, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, consciousness (AVPU = alert, voice, pain, and unresponsive), systolic blood pressure and temperature. 16 This second step focused on better communication, collaboration and critical thinking in cases of clinical emergencies on medical and surgical wards. Nurses were educated and instructed to use the SBAR tool for handover communication between nursing shifts and to use SBAR in cases of deteriorating patients when calling a physician. Physicians were not instructed because the aim of this study was to use SBAR only in the communication of nurses calling physicians. First, for each ward one or two reference nurses received a two-day course in SBAR by discussing the problem of communication-related errors and the need for standard communication in clinical emergencies, explaining the use of SBAR and training in using SBAR by roleplay. Second, the other nurses were educated and instructed by the reference nurse of their ward in a 2-h training session. Additionally, a 4-h lesson on early detection, the ABCDE algorithm (airway, breathing, circulation, disability, and exposure), critical thinking and SBAR communication for all nurses was part of the intervention. 17,18 Nurses were instructed to be better prepared before calling for help by taking every step in the early warning process: frequent patient observation and measuring six vital signs at the same time according to the standardised nurse observation protocol, calculation of MEWS, assessing the patient by using the ABCDE algorithm and notating their ?ndings in the patient record according the SBAR structure. No instruction was given about writing down and reading back the verbal orders given by physicians. 2. 3. Main outcome measures 2. 3. 1. The questionnaire The perception of effective communication was measured by the CCCT Tool. 13 Twelve questions were postulated for nurses about physicians. A 4-point Likert scale was used scoring each question in the same direction: â₠¬Å"strongly agree (4 points)†, â€Å"agree (3 points)†, â€Å"disagree (2 points)†, and â€Å"strongly disagree (1 point)†. Three dimensions were deducted: collaboration, communication between nurses and physicians and perception of communication. 2. 3. 2. Cases of a SAE Patient records with identi? ed SAEs were checked by an investigator for a period of 48 h before the SAE for SBAR items according to the SBAR form of the Kaiser Permanente Centre for Health Research (1) to investigate if nurses prepared their communication according to the SBAR protocol, (2) to analyze the type and frequency of vital signs noted in the patient record. SAE’s were de?ned as: unexpected deaths (=deaths without do not attempt resuscitation code), unplanned admission to an ICU and cardiac arrest team calls. 19,20 1194 K. De Meester et al. / Resuscitation 84 (2013) 1192–1196 Table 1 Demographics of â€Å"Communication, Collaboration and Critical Thinking Quality Patient Outcomes Survey Tool† questionnaire participants. Total Nurses Gender (male) Age in years Medical nursing unit Surgical nursing unit Experi ence in years Years in the nursing unit Number % Mean (range) % % Mean (range) Mean (range) Pre intervention period Post intervention period 425 10. 6 40. 0 (21–64) 42. 9 57. 1 15. 4 (0–44) 12. 0 (0–32) 245 9. 1 40. 5 (21–64) 46. 9 53. 1 15. 4 (0–44) 11. 3 (0–32) 180 12. 9 39. 51 (21–63) 37. 3* 62. 7* 15. 4 (0–37) 13. 2 (1–32) p-Values: independent samples t-test, Pearsons’ chi-square, Mann–Whitney U-test not signi? cant. * Pearsons’ chi-square = p 0. 05. 2. 4. Statistical analysis Descriptive analysis of the study population was performed comparing the characteristics of the pre and post intervention population. Independent sample t-test, Pearsons’ chi-square, Fishers’ exact test and Cronbachs alfa were performed. In cases of non-normally distributed continuous variables the non-parametric Mann–Whitney U-test was used. The relative risk ratio (RRR) and number needed to treat (NNT = ((1/ARR) ? 100)) were calculated. For data analysis we used SPSS ® , version 20. 0 (IBM, Chicago, IL, USA) and statistical signi? cance was set at p 0. 05. 21 2. 4. 1. The questionnaire The total score on the CCCT Tool ranges from 12 to 48. We transformed this to a 0–100 scale by using the formula: ((total score ? lowest possible score)/range of total score) ? 100 for clarity reasons. Mean values are reported. The three dimensions were: â€Å"collaboration† (questions 1, 2, 3 and 4), â€Å"overall perception of communication† (questions 5, 6, 7), â€Å"communication between physicians and nurses† (questions 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12). 2. 4. 2. Patient record analysis Wards were divided according to medical and surgical specialty. Length of stay (LOS) was coded in days. The variable SBAR was scored â€Å"1† if all 4 elements of SBAR were found in the patient record and all other possible combinations were scored â€Å"0† as not compliant with the SBAR protocol. 3. Results 3. 1. The questionnaire The questionnaire was completed by 425 nurses. Nurses’ response rate in the pre intervention period was 72% (n = 245) and 53% in the post intervention period (n = 180). For questionnaire participants there were no demographic differences between pre and post intervention group (Table 1). The mean age of the respondents was 40 years, they were mainly female (90%) of Belgian nationality (92%) and worked as a nurse for 15 years. Sixty percent of the nurses had a bachelor degree. Nurses’ total score on the CCCT Tool increased from 58 (range 31–97; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.883) in the pre intervention period to 64 (range 25–97; p 0. 001; Cronbach’s alpha = 0. 843) in the post intervention period. The subscales for nurse–physician communication and for collaboration changed in the same direction (Table 2). 3. 2. Patient record analysis The SBAR items were notated more frequently in patient records from mean 32% in the pre intervention period to 56% (p 0. 005) post intervention. Pre intervention only 4% of the SAE’s all 4 SBAR elements were notated in the patient records and in the post intervention period this increased to 35% (p 0.001). 3. 3. Patient outcome During the research periods with 210,074 inpatient days and 37,239 admissions there were 207 SAE’s of which 81 (4. 4/1000 admissions) in the pre intervention period and 126 (6. 7/1000 admissions) in the post intervention period. Of the patients with SAE’s 35% had a previous ICU episode during the same hospital stay. Compared to the pre intervention period patients with a SAE episode in the post intervention period were younger (from mean 68 to 63 years) and stayed shorter in the hospital (from mean 32 days to 46 days) (Table 3). Patients with SAE episodes were mainly male (54%) and were admitted to medical wards in 73%. In 88% of the SAE’s vital signs were found in the patient record up to 8 h prior to the event. The number of unplanned ICU-transfers increased from 51 (13. 1/1000 admissions) in the pre intervention period to 105 (14. 8/1000 admissions) in the post intervention period (RRR = 50%, 95% CI = 30–64; p = 0. 001). There was no signi? cant difference in Cardiac Arrest Team calls (Table 3). The number of unexpected deaths decreased from 16 (0. 99/1000 admissions) in the pre intervention period to 5 (0.34/1000 admissions) in the post intervention period (RRR = ? 227%, 95% CI = ? 793 to ? 20, NNT 1656; p 0. 001). Table 2 Results of the â€Å"Communication, Collaboration and Critical Thinking Quality Patient Outcomes Survey Tool† questionnaire. Pre intervention N = 245 Nurses Total score (48b ) Subscales Collaboration (16b ) Communication with physician (20b Overall perception of c ommunication (12b ) a b c Cronbach’s alpha for the whole population. Independent samples t-test. Scores corrected to a 0–100 scale. Post intervention N = 18 p 58. 6 (31–97) 63. 9 (25–97)

Write Your First PTE Essay - Help With Writing a Good One

Write Your First PTE Essay - Help With Writing a Good OneAn instructor will not offer a PTE essay sample. But the same instructor can assign you one based on their own suggestions.You have probably seen the pre-tested essay samples. They are usually filled with advice that is directly relevant to your topic and format. The material is usually presented in a reader-friendly format. It is a well-known fact that these guides can save a lot of time.But the reader-friendly format may be full of errors that can derail your course outline. The guide author was just guessing on your grade, so you want to have the confidence that your grade is accurate. If you are not comfortable writing for class, you might not be confident writing for a standardized test. Thus, it is important that you understand the writing skills needed to write an essay.A PTE essay sample could also contain your formatting instructions and punctuation rules. Some good examples of course outlines are presented in the guid e and they indicate that certain words or phrases should be emphasized or you should use certain punctuation. This is one way to help you avoid making mistakes during class.You also want to know how the syllabus has been completed. While you will be busy and be too distracted to actually write a student draft, a sample assignment can give you some ideas on what you may need to change. This is the best way to get a fair idea on how the test is going to be like.In addition, you want to be able to write a composition with clarity. Do not forget that you are the student learning. The guide may be correct, but mistakes do happen and you should be aware of them.Since you have a pre-determined length for the essay, it would be nice if you get some feedback from your instructor. If the instructor finds the paper lacks clarity, they will be happy to give you feedback on a paragraph level so that you can work on it while you study for the test.Keep in mind that although you may not remember w hat type of essay you wrote, the guide is likely that you wrote an essay based on past tests that you took. This will make it easier for you to remember things that you did wrong and prepare for future tests. Writing an essay may seem complicated, but it is actually fairly simple once you know how to write one.

Heros Flight essays

Hero's Flight essays Paul Warfield Tibbets Jr. was born in in Quincy, Illinois on February 23rd, 1915. He is still alive and lives in Chicago. He is know for dropping the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan in 1945, and contributing to the quicker end of WWII. When he was young, his family moved to Florida and that is where he grew up. He had a brother, and a sister in an average home for that time period. His dad most of his life in the military, and his mom was pretty much an average housewife. His dad did not want him to be a pilot, but his mom was very supportive in anything he did. She was the one who finally inspired him to become one, and eventually a hero. He went to the Western Military Academy, then proceeded to the University of Florida, and Cincinnati. That is when he became a flight cadet at Army Air Corps in Fort Thomas, Kentucky. At the age of twelve, he visited Fort Thomas and got to have his first ride in an airplane. That is when he found out that he wanted to become a pilot. His determination to become a pilot shows that he was going to succeed at it, and eventually become a hero. He made many sacrifices, due to his career as a military pilot. His family life was practically destroyed, because he was a bad father to his two kids. He always put his wife Lucy and his kids second, to fling in the air force. This is what led to their divorce, and him losing his kids. According to him he also sacrificed his place in heaven because of Hiroshima, and the bomb. He said,I never planed my life the way it happened. I never planed to go to heaven.? (113). Nothing particularly lucky ever happened to Paul, but having to work for his career was an inspiration to him in itself. Tibbet's magnum opus according to him, was dedicating his life to defending his country. He explained that commanding the mission on Hiroshima was just another part of his job to him, If he didn't do it someone else would have. He just did it to show t ...