Indians and green marketing - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 29 Words: 8789 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? ACKNOWLEDGEMENT As I sum up draft of my study, I appreciatively reminisce the contribution of all those people without whose support and help, this study would have never taken its present form. I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude towards the pillars of successful completion of Dissertation Report, without whose unflinching assistance co-operation at all times it would rather have been impossible for me to achieve the desired goal. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Indians and green marketing" essay for you Create order I am greatly indebted to my faculty guide mentor, Mr.Saravana Krishnamurthy, Professor Kohinoor Business School, Khandala for his undying support encouragement throughout the project. Lastly I would like to thank my school, Kohinoor Business School, Khandala for giving me this opportunity to put to practice, the theoretical knowledge that I imparted from the program . Last but not the least I express my thanks to all the respondents who showed a keen interest in my Project, relatives, friends and neighbors to provide me the necessary resources to complete the Project the help provided to me at every step. DEDICATION Keep your dreams alive. Understand to achieve anything requires faith and belief in yourself, vision,hard work, determination, and dedication. Remember all things are possible for those who believe. -Merlin Olsen I dedicate this report to my parents and friends in recognition of their worth and to my teachers who are the guiding force for me and it is their effort and hard work that showed me the path of success and prosperity which would be there for me for the rest of my life. I would like to thank and dedicate this report to everyone who knowingly and unknowingly contributed to the completion of my Summer Internship Project. I hope people find this report useful and the subject matter adds to their knowledge. ABSTRACT In todays business world environmental issues plays an important role in marketing. All most all the governments around the world have concerned about green marketing activities that they have attempted to regulate them. For example, in the United States (US) the Federal Trade Commission and the National Association of Attorneys-General have developed extensive documents examining green marketing. There has been little attempt to academically examine environmental or green marketing. It introduces the terms and concepts of green marketing, briefly discuss why going green is important and also examine some of the reason that organizations are adopting a green marketing philosophy. It also focuses some of the problems with green marketing. It identifies the key to successful green marketing: Credibility Publicize stories of the companys and employees green initiatives. Enter environmental awards programs to profile environmental credentials to customers and stakeholders. Never overstate environmental claims or establish unrealistic expectations. It also tells about Why Are Firms Using Green Marketing Organizations perceive environmental marketing to be an opportunity that can be used to achieve its objectives Organizations believe they have a moral obligation to be more socially responsible Governmental bodies are forcing firms to become more responsible Competitors environmental activities pressure firms to change their environmental marketing activities Cost factors associated with waste disposal, or reductions in material usage forces firms to modify their behavior This report stresses upon the effect of green marketing on the consumers. Green marketing isnt just a catchphrase; its a marketing strategy that can help you get more customers and make more money. But only if you do it right. OBJECTIVE: 1)To determine whether Indian consumers are ready for Green Marketing 2) To determine whether Price has effect on purchase of green products 3) To determine whether environment consciousness has effect on purchase of green products 4) To determine whether Availability has effect on the purchase of green products 5) To determine whether Awareness has an effect on Purchase of green products RESEARCH METHDOLOGY Research Methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others. INTRODUCTION According to the American Marketing Association [1],green marketing is the marketing of products that are presumed to be environmentally safe. Thus green marketing incorporates a broad range of activities, including * Product modification, * Changes to the production process, * Packaging changes, as well as * Modifying advertising. Yet defining green marketing is not a simple task where several meanings intersect and contradict each other; an example of this will be the existence of varying social, environmental and retail definitions attached to this term. Other similar terms used are Environmental Marketing and Ecological Marketing. The legal implications of marketing claims call for caution. Misleading or overstated claims can lead to regulatory or civil challenges. In the USA, the Federal Trade Commission provides some guidance on environmental marketing claims. The term green marketing [2] came into prominence in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The American Marketing Association (AMA) held the first workshop on Ecological Marketing in 1975. The proceedings of this workshop resulted in one of the first books on green marketing entitled Ecological Marketing Thus green marketing incorporates a broad range of activities, including product modification, changes to the production process, packaging changes, as well as modifying advertising. My definition which encompasses all major components of other definitions is: Green or Environmental Marketing consists of all activities designed to generate and facilitate any exchanges intended to satisfy human needs or wants, such that the satisfaction of these needs and wants occurs, with minimal detrimental impact on the natural environment. This definition incorporates much of the traditional components of the marketing definition that is All activities designed to generate and facilitate any exchanges intended to satisfy human needs or wants. So, in simple terms Green marketing refers to the process of selling products and/or services based on their environmental benefits. Such a product or service may be environmentally friendly in itself or produced and/or packaged in an environmentally friendly way. The obvious assumption of green marketing is that potential consumers will view a product or services greenness as a benefit and base their buying decision accordingly. The not-so-obvious assumption of green marketing is that consumers will be willing to pay more for green products than they would for a less-green comparable alternative product -an assumption that has not been proven conclusively, specially the mild effect which it had had on consumers has washed away by the present recession (2008-09) only. Green marketers though argue that it is a way to use the environmental benefits of a product or service to promote sales. Many consumers will choose products that do not damage the environment over less environmentally friendly products, even if they cost more. With green marketing, advertisers focus on environmental benefits to sell products such as biodegradable diapers, energy-efficient light bulbs, and environmentally safe detergents. People buy billions of dollars worth of goods and services every yearmany of which harm the environment in the way they are harvested, made, or used. Environmentalists support green marketing to encourage people to use environmentally preferable alternatives, and to offer incentives to manufacturers that develop more environmentally beneficial products. IMPORTANCE OF GREEN MARKETING Man has limited resources on the earth [3], with which she/he must attempt to provide for the worlds unlimited wants. There is extensive debate as to whether the earth is a resource at mans disposal. In market societies where there is freedom of choice, it has generally been accepted that individuals and organizations have the right to attempt to have their wants satisfied. As firms face limited natural resources, they must develop new or alternative ways of satisfying these unlimited wants. Ultimately green marketing looks at how marketing activities utilize these limited resources, while satisfying consumers wants, both of individuals and industry, as well as achieving the selling organizations objectives. When looking through the literature there are several suggested reasons for firms increased use of Green Marketing. Five possible reasons cited are: Organizations perceive environmental marketing to be an opportunity that can be used to achieve its objectives Organizations believe they have a moral obligation to be more socially responsible Governmental bodies are forcing firms to become more responsible Competitors environmental activities pressure firms to change their environmental marketing activities Cost factors associated with waste disposal, or reductions in material usage forces firms to modify their behavior Opportunities GOALS OF GREEN MARKETING Eliminate the concept of waste. Reinvent the concept of product. Make prices reflect actual and environmental costs. Make environmentalism profitable. Bringing out product modifications. Changing in production processes. Packaging changes. Modifying advertising. NEED OF GREEN MARKETING: AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIEW Issues like Global warming [3] and depletion of ozone umbrella are the main for the healthy survival. Every person rich or poor would be interested in quality life with full of health and vigor and so would the corporate class. Financial gain and economic profit is the main aim of any corporate business. But harm to environment cost by sustain business across the globe is realized now though off late. This sense is building corporate citizenship in the business class. So green marketing by the business class is still in the selfish anthological perspective of long term sustainable business and to please the consumer and obtain the sanction license by the governing body. Industries in Asian countries are catching the need of green marketing from the developed countries but still there is a wide gap between their understanding and implementation. CHALLENGES IN GREEN MARKETING NEED FOR STANDARDIZATION It is found that only 5% of the marketing messages from Green campaigns are entirely true and there is a lack of standardization to authenticate these claims. There is no standardization to authenticate these claims. There is no standardization currently in place to certify a product as organic. Unless some regulatory bodies are involved in providing the certifications there will not be any verifiable means. A standard quality control board needs to be in place for such labeling and licensing. NEW CONCEPT Indian literate and urban consumer is getting more aware about the merits of Green products. But it is still a new concept for the masses. The consumer needs to be educated and made aware of the environmental threats. The new green movements need to reach the masses and that will take a lot of time and effort. By Indias ayurvedic heritage, Indian consumers do appreciate the importance of using natural and herbal beauty products. Indian consumer is exposed to healthy living lifestyles such as yoga and natural food consumption. In those aspects the consumer is already aware and will be inclined to accept the green products. PATIENCE AND PERSEVERANCE The investors and corporate need to view the environment as a major long-term investment opportunity, the marketers need to look at the long-term benefits from this new green movement. It will require a lot of patience and no immediate results. Since it is a new concept and idea, it will have its own acceptance period. AVOIDING GREEN MYOPIA The first rule of green marketing is focusing on customer benefits i.e. the primary reason why consumers buy certain products in the first place. Do this right, and motivate consumers to switch brands or even pay a premium for the greener alternative. It is not going to help if product is developed which is absolutely green in various aspects but does not pass the customer satisfaction criteria. This will lead to green myopia. Also if the green products are priced very high then again it will loose its market acceptability. BENEFITS OF GREEN MARKETING Todays consumers are becoming more and more conscious about the environment and are also becoming socially responsible. Therefore, more companies are responsible to consumers aspirations for environmentally less damaging or neutral products. Many companies want to have an early mover advantage as they have to eventually move towards becoming green. Some of the advantages of green marketing are: It ensures sustained long term growth along with profitability. It saves money in the long run, though initially the cost is more. It helps the companies market their products and services keeping the environment aspects in mind. It helps in accessing the new markets and enjoying the competitive advantage. Most of the employees also feel proud and responsible to be working for an environmentally responsible company. GREEN MARKETING MIX PRODUCT Entrepreneurs [5] wanting to exploit emerging green markets either: Identify customers environmental needs and develop products to address these needs or will develop environmentally responsible products to have less impact than competitors. The increasingly wide variety of products on the market that support sustainable developments are: Products made from recycled goods, such as Quick N Tuff housing materials made from recycled broccoli boxes. Products that can be recycled or reused. Efficient products, which save water, energy or gasoline, save money and reduce environmental impact. Products with environmentally responsible packaging, McDonalds, for example, changed their packaging from polystyrene clamshells to paper. Products with green labels, as long as they offer substantiation. Certified products, which meet or exceed environmentally responsible criteria. Organic products-many customers are prepared to pay a premium for organic products, which offer promise of quality. Organic butchers, for example, promote the added qualities such as taste and tenderness. A service that rents or loans products-toy libraries. Whatever the product or service, it is vital to ensure that products meet or exceed the quality expectation of customers and is thoroughly tested. PRICE Pricing is the critical element of the marketing mix. Most customers will only be prepared to pay a premium if there is a perception of additional product value. This value may be improved performance, function, design, visual appeal or taste. Environmental benefits will be often be the deciding factor between products of equal value or quality. Environmentally responsible products, however are often less expensive when product life cycle coast are taken into consideration, for example fuel-efficient vehicles, water efficient printing and non-hazardous products. PLACE The choice of where and when to make products available will have significant impact on the customers you attract. Very few customers go out of their way to buy green products merely for the sake of it. Marketers looking to successfully introduce new green products should position them broadly in the market place so they are not just appealing to a small green niche market. The location must also be consistent with the image you want to project and allow you to project your own image rather than being dominated or compromised by the image of venue. The location must differentiate you from the competitors. This can be achieved by in-store promotions and visually appealing displays or using recycled materials to emphasize the environmental and other benefits. PROMOTION Promoting products and services to target markets include paid advertising, public relations, sales promotions, direct marketing and on-site promotions. Smart green marketers will be able to reinforce environmental credibility by using sustainable marketing and communication tools and practices. For example, many companies in the financial industry are providing electronic statements by email; e-marketing is rapidly replacing more traditional marketing methods and printed materials can be produced using recycled materials and efficient processes such as waterless printing. Retailers, for example are recognizing the value of alliances with other companies, environmental groups and research organizations. When promoting their environmental commitment to reduce the use of plastic bags and promote their green commitment, some retailers sell shopping bags and promote their green commitments. Moving Towards Green Marketing The era of green marketing has begun. It has already been granted wide acceptance by all stakeholders. However, there is a need to lay down the standards and practices, in order to bring in objectivity in the judgment of various national and international agencies. This will not only encourage the activities of green marketing but shall also provide the much needed level playing fields to all. PRESENT TRENDS IN GREEN MARKETING IN INDIA[6] . Organizations Perceive Environmental marketing to be an Opportunity that can be used to achieve its objectives. Firms have realized that consumers prefer products that do not harm the natural environment as also the human health. Firms marketing such green products are preferred over the others not doing so and thus develop a competitive advantage, simultaneously meeting their business objectives. Organizations believe they have a moral obligation to be more socially responsible. This is in keeping with the philosophy of CSR which has been successfully adopted by many business houses to improve their corporate image. Firms in this situation can take two approaches: Use the fact that they are environmentally responsible as a marketing tool. Become responsible without prompting this fact. . Governmental Bodies are forcing Firms to Become More Responsible In most cases the government forces the firm to adopt policy which protects the interests of the consumers. It does so in following ways: Reduce production of harmful goods or by -products Modify consumer and industrys use and /or consumption of harmful goods; or Ensure that all types of consumers have the ability to evaluate the environmental composition of goods . Competitors Environmental Activities Pressure Firms to change their Environmental Marketing Activities In order to get even with competitors claim to being environmentally friendly, firms change over to green marketing. Result is green marketing percolates entire industry. . Cost Factors Associated With Waste Disposal or Reductions in Material Usage Forces Firms to Modify their Behavior With cost cutting becoming part of the strategy of the firms it adopts green marketing in relation to these activities. It may pursue these as follows: A Firm develops a technology for reducing waste and sells it to other firms. A waste recycling or removal industry develops. LITERATURE REVIEW 1. GOLDEN GOOSE OR WILD GOOSE? THE HUNT FOR THE GREEN CONSUMER This paper tries to provide insight by discarding the socio-demographic and personality-based influences that have been the prime research focus for the last 20 years Instead, it follows the example of other researchers looking at the importance of situational factors relating to the purchase itself. The green purchase perception matrix brings together two of the factors that have most often shown a positive link with green purchase behaviour in academic research perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) and cost/ benefit trade-offs. The consumer will remain central to the greening of business for two very important reasons. Firstly, the consumption undertaken by private households accounts for a large proportion of the economys environmental impact . Secondly, consumption must also form part of the solution within free market economies in which consumer sovereignty is enshrined, and where the majority of companies profess to have a marketing orientation. However, continuing within the conventional marketing paradigm (and with a hunting mentality of identifying and targeting the green consumer with bait, traps and a little camouflage) is unlikely to create significant progress towards sustainability. Perhaps more importantly companies need to create the right habitat in which green consumption can thrive. Instead of acting as hunters, aggressively trying to benefit from the emergence of green consumers by targeting them, they could act more like gamekeepers who nurture and facilitate growth in the population of green consumers. This can be achieved by boosting consumer confidence and by reducing the level of compromise they must make through openness, the provision of full information and consumer choice, environmentally realistic pricing and the development of innovative clean technology solutions. Reference:- Ken Peattie (2001), Bussiness Strategy Environment, Golden goose or wild goose? The Hunt For the green Consumers, Vol: Bus. Strat. Env. 10, 187-199 2. A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ADVERTISING CLAIMS: A MATRIX METHOD APPROACH This study demonstrates that environmental advertising is not a monolithic phenomenon. Certain types of claims posed among environmental a dare more susceptible to consumer confusion and perceptions of deception. Advertisers would be well advised to pay particular attention to these types claims, particularly in light of the recent FTC directives. In their efforts to jump on the green bandwagon, advertisers should be sensitized to the fact that image claims may be a specific problem area Care should be taken in developing and pretest in environmental ads that rely on such claims and efforts to monitor consumer response to them should made. Ultimately, applying the matrix that we have developed here may help to identify such shortcomings with environmental advertising claims and direct attention to potential remedies. Reference:- Les Carlson, Stephen J Grove Norman Kangum (Sep 1993), Journal of Advertising, A context Analysis of environmental Advertising Claims: A matrix Method Approach, Vol.: XXII, No. 3, 27-38. 3.BUYER CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREEN CONSUMERS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR ADVERTISING STRATEGY The study results provide interesting and potentially useful information about the consumer who is interested in buying green. They suggest that particular consumer attitudes are related to the propensity to buy green, but the relations are qualified somewhat by gender and by the nature of the green buying behavior.Making a special effort to buy green is unrelated to impulse buying and brand loyalty. In terms of the communication variables, persons making a special effort to buy green found magazines more interesting than television and indicated they would not buy a brand whose advertising they dislike. As expected, it was found predictor-criterion relationship differences between the two green buying variables. One criterion variable (making a special effort to buy green) taps a general interest in buying green. The other criterion variable (switching brands to buy green, even at the expense of product effectiveness) is more specific and more stringent in terms of greenness in that it provides more constraints and introduces a salient cost. The results indicate that, across genders, the consumer variables do a better job of predicting the variance in the former criterion than that in the latter criterion.. The results show that the green consumer has an interest in new products, is an information seeker, and talks with others about products. Additionally, green consumers consider themselves opinion leaders, and hence may provide word-of-mouth information that other consumers respect. The green consumer is also a careful shopper, not prone to impulse buying, and pays attention to pr ice, so advertisers must consider those issues as well.The results suggest that if companies do succeed in attracting green-oriented consumers, they will have to continue working to keep them. The lack of brand loyalty on the part of green consumers (in comparison with those less green), coupled with their propensity to actively seek information, implies that the green consumer will always be looking for new products. Although the environmental movement has been underway for years, green marketing seems to be a relatively new phenomenon. Marketers are typically not slow to adopt an innovation, but green marketing is in some ways fraught with peril Certainly, marketers are getting mixed signalsfrom polls, from research results, an d from sales figures. Common sense suggests that the use of green appeals by marketers can be productive. However, recent research on green marketing and the green consumer, indicates that the concepts will not be easy to apply. Green consumers must be treated carefully and, in particular, with respect. They appear to be careful and thoughtful consumers. Treated fairly, they may be receptive; treated poorly, they may not only switch brands, but also take others with them. References:- L J Shrun, John A McCarty Tina M Lowrey (Summer 1995), Journal of advertising, Buyer Characteristics of the green consumers and Their implications for Advertising strategy, Vol: XXIV, no 2, 71-81 4.ROLE OF SOCIO DEMOGRAPHICS IN SEGMENTING AND PROFILING GREEN CONSUMERS; AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF CONSUMERS IN INDIA Though green consumerism is on the rise, not all the consumers are equally green. To be able to more effectively market green products and ideas,marketers need to segment their market and use differentiated marketing approach for each target segment. Socio-demographic characteristics have been widely used in the past researches as a basis of market segmentation and profiling of green consumers. The present study explores the usefulness of select socio-demographic characteristics in capturing variations present in the environmental consciousness of the consumers in India. Both the univariate and multivariate analyses point to the presence of statistically significant linkages between the socio-demographic characteristics and different environmental consciousness constructs, thus implying potential usefulness of these characteristics in profiling different segments of green consumers an devolving accordingly the green marketing strategies and environmental campaigns as capable of more effectively reaching and influencing the chosen green consumer segments. The study has employed a more elaborate conceptualization of the environmental consciousness construct. Regarding age,. A negative relationship of age with WSE, IISB and IIO signifies a greater tendency among the relatively younger persons (viz., those belonging to the age groups 18-24 years and 24-35 years) to actively search for the environmentally friendly products, gather environment related information and influence others to behave in an environmentally responsible manner. These persons, however, appear less enthusiastic about choosing the least polluting products (ICLPP). This might be due to their lower purchasing power for being mainly either students or unemployed at this stage in their family life cycle. Education level is found to be significantly related with the environmental consciousness in respect to five environmental consciousness measures. A significantly positive relationship of the education level with environmental knowledge (EK), incidence and frequency of conservation behavior (ICB and FCB) and frequency of environmental activism implies greater environmental consciousness among the relatively more educated persons. Because of their higher intellectual orientation, these persons are able to better understand and appreciate green ideas and green claims made by the green marketers. Education level is, however, found to be significantly but negatively related with the respondents willingness to seek environmentally friendly products (WSE). The variable typeofschoolattended emerges as a significant correlate of the environmental consciousness for as many as six constructs. Notwithstanding being less articulate and extrovert, persons with the government school background exhibit a higher level of environmental consciousness in terms of environmental awareness (AEIP) as well as willingness to seek environmentally friendly products (WSE), incidence of seeking information (IISB), conserving resources (ICB) and choosing the least polluting products (ICLPP). The only aspect where they lag behind persons with the private school background is frequency of environmental activism (FEA), probably due to being less extrovert and gregarious than their counterpart. Income also emerges as an important correlate of environmental consciousness. Persons with higher income are also high in their awareness of the environmental regulations (AER),willingness to pay for the environmentally friendly products (WPM), incidence of information seeking behavior (IISB) and choosing the least polluting products (ICLPP). But in terms of their involvement with the activities relating to influencing others (IIO) and conserving the environment (FCB), they turn out to be poor performers. References:- Sanjay k Jain Gurmeet Kaur (2006), Role of Socio Demographics in Segmenting and profiling Green Consumers; An exploratory Study of consumers in India, Vol.: 18 (3), 107-146 5. GREEN MARKETING, AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE The present paper discusses the emergence of environmentalism in India and examines the response of government agencies, consumers, non- business organizations and corporate houses to the rising levels of pollution and environmental degradation in the country. Along with a brief introduction to the concept of green marketing, a review of the factors responsible for motivating business firms to go green have been included , after which the paper moves on to a discussion of Indias major environmental concerns and efforts made at the governmental level to combat the environmental problem of the country. Succeeding paper analyse related issues such as eco labeling, green consumerism and green corporate marketing practices, in the Indian context. The paper concludes with a discussion of the future of green marketing in India along with the strategy implications and directions for research work. From the foregoing discussion it is clear that environmentalism has gained importance in India. Various environment protection campaigns initiated in the past, enactment of several environment, launching of green labeling scheme(ECOMARK) and ecological marketing initiatives made by business firms- all these eloquently speak of the growing environmental concern in the country. Intensification of such campaigns and efforts is likely to gain further momentum in the coming years, in India. Growing population, fast depletion of resources, paucity of funds, lack of environment friendly technical know-how, changing consumption patterns, and pressure on the policy makers to hasten the pace of industrialization in view of the need to raise the standards of living and provide employment to the masses pose serious environmental challenges The present paper has provided only anecdotal evidence of the adoption of green marketing practices by Indian business firms. More rigorous research studies are needed to examine the business firms awareness of different environmental issues and the factors that inhibit and motivate them to go in for green business operations and green marketing practices. References:- Sanjay K Jain Gurmeet Kaur (2004), Green Marketing, An Indian perspective, Vol:31, No 2, 168-209 6. ADVERTISING TURN INDIA GREEN, AS INDIANS BECOME INCREASINGLY CONSUMERIST, Rise of the new consumerism in India, with highly packed food are springing up all over the country, so not only ice frog the wests consumption habit, we could also avoid some of the pitfall of our environment movement too. With the rooted culture of the reusing recycling, with the wind of change seems to be blowing in India. References : Ella Saltmarshe and Annie Dare (2009), Creative Review, Advertising turn India Green, As Indians become increasingly Consumerist, The countrys advertising industries has vital role to play, Vol.: Feb 2009, 40-42 7. MARKETING STRATEGIES MARKET PROSPECTS FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY CONSUMER PRODUCT This study has highlighted the role that firms and their marketing strategies play in influencing consumer demand for green technologies. Firms initially developed and introduced new green products in response to consumer pressure and legislation, thus creating new markets for eco-friendly goods. More recent years, however, saw consumer demand pressure increasing only slowly, while the pressure from legislation and competition gained in importance. Managers acknowledged that product performance gaps between green and conventional technologies have been a major barrier in the diffusion of green consumer products in the UK. Managers argued that firms may have mis-specified green product benefits in relation to consumers needs and that in the absence of clarity of green products environmental impact, performance and other attributes, as opposed to green benefits, remain the key determinants of product preference and choice. Limitations in green product performance constrain pricing and communication efforts. However the studys findings suggest that, apart from product performance gaps, firms communication and promotional policies for green product, which disproportionately favored end users, despite the importance of retailer and dealer acceptance, were imbalanced and far from effective, provision of full information and consumer choice, environmentally realistic pricing and the development of innovative clean technology solutions. Refer3ence:- Ken Peattie (2001), Bussiness Strategy Environment, Golden goose or wild goose? The Hunt For the green Consumers, Vol: Bus. Strat. Env. 10, 187-199 This study demonstrates that environmental advertising is not a monolithic phenomenon. Certain types of claims posed among environmental a dare more susceptible to consumer confusion and perceptions of deception. Advertisers would be well advised to pay particular attention to these types claims, particularly in light of the recent FTC directives. In their efforts to jump on the green bandwagon, advertisers should be sensitized to the fact that image claims may be a specific problem area Care should be taken in developing and pretest in environmental ads that rely on such claims and efforts to monitor consumer response to them should made. Ultimately, applying the matrix that we have developed here may help to identify such shortcomings with environmental advertising claims and direct attention to potential remedies. Reference:- Les Carlson, Stephen J Grove Norman Kangum (Sep 1993), Journal of Advertising, A context Analysis of environmental Advertising Claims: A matrix Method Approach, Vol.: XXII, No. 3, 27-38. The study results provide interesting and potentially useful information about the consumer who is interested in buying green. They suggest that particular consumer attitudes are related to the propensity to buy green, but the relations are qualified somewhat by gender and by the nature of the green buying behavior.Making a special effort to buy green is unrelated to impulse buying and brand loyalty. In terms of the communication variables, persons making a special effort to buy green found magazines more interesting than television and indicated they would not buy a brand whose advertising they dislike. As expected, it was found predictor-criterion relationship differences between the two green buying variables. One criterion variable (making a special effort to buy green) taps a general interest in buying green. The other criterion variable (switching brands to buy green, even at the expense of product effectiveness) is more specific and more stringent in terms of greenness in that it provides more constraints and introduces a salient cost. The results indicate that, across genders, the consumer variables do a better job of predicting the variance in the former criterion than that in the latter criterion.. The results show that the green consumer has an interest in new products, is an information seeker, and talks with others about products. Additionally, green consumers consider themselves opinion leaders, and hence may provide word-of-mouth information that other consumers respect. The green consumer is also a careful shopper, not prone to impulse buying, and pays attention to pr ice, so advertisers must consider those issues as well.The results suggest that if companies do succeed in attracting green-oriented consumers, they will have to continue working to keep them. The lack of brand loyalty on the part of green consumers (in comparison with those less green), coupled with their propensity to actively seek information, implies that the green consumer will always be looking for new products. Although the environmental movement has been underway for years, green marketing seems to be a relatively new phenomenon. Marketers are typically not slow to adopt an innovation, but green marketing is in some ways fraught with peril Certainly, marketers are getting mixed signalsfrom polls, from research results, an d from sales figures. Common sense suggests that the use of green appeals by marketers can be productive. However, recent research on green marketing and the green consumer, indicates that the concepts will not be easy to apply. Green consumers must be treated carefully and, in particular, with respect. They appear to be careful and thoughtful consumers. Treated fairly, they may be receptive; treated poorly, they may not only switch brands, but also take others with them. L J Shrun, John A McCarty Tina M Lowrey (Summer 1995), Journal of advertising, Buyer Characteristics of the green consumers and Their implications for Advertising strategy, Vol: XXIV, no 2, 71-81 8. ROLE OF SOCIO DEMOGRAPHICS IN SEGMENTING AND PROFILING GREEN CONSUMERS; AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF CONSUMERS IN INDIA Though green consumerism is on the rise, not all the consumers are equally green. To be able to more effectively market green products and ideas,marketers need to segment their market and use differentiated marketing approach for each target segment. Socio-demographic characteristics have been widely used in the past researches as a basis of market segmentation and profiling of green consumers. The present study explores the usefulness of select socio-demographic characteristics in capturing variations present in the environmental consciousness of the consumers in India. Both the univariate and multivariate analyses point to the presence of statistically significant linkages between the socio-demographic characteristics and different environmental consciousness constructs, thus implying potential usefulness of these characteristics in profiling different segments of green consumers an devolving accordingly the green marketing strategies and environmental campaigns as capable of more effectively reaching and influencing the chosen green consumer segments. The study has employed a more elaborate conceptualization of the environmental consciousness construct. Regarding age,. A negative relationship of age with WSE, IISB and IIO signifies a greater tendency among the relatively younger persons (viz., those belonging to the age groups 18-24 years and 24-35 years) to actively search for the environmentally friendly products, gather environment related information and influence others to behave in an environmentally responsible manner. These persons, however, appear less enthusiastic about choosing the least polluting products (ICLPP). This might be due to their lower purchasing power for being mainly either students or unemployed at this stage in their family life cycle. Education level is found to be significantly related with the environmental consciousness in respect to five environmental consciousness measures. A significantly positive relationship of the education level with environmental knowledge (EK), incidence and frequency of conservation behavior (ICB and FCB) and frequency of environmental activism implies greater environmental consciousness among the relatively more educated persons. Because of their higher intellectual orientation, these persons are able to better understand and appreciate green ideas and green claims made by the green marketers. Education level is, however, found to be significantly but negatively related with the respondents willingness to seek environmentally friendly products (WSE). The variable typeofschoolattended emerges as a significant correlate of the environmental consciousness for as many as six constructs. Notwithstanding being less articulate and extrovert, persons with the government school background exhibit a higher level of environmental consciousness in terms of environmental awareness (AEIP) as well as willingness to seek environmentally friendly products (WSE), incidence of seeking information (IISB), conserving resources (ICB) and choosing the least polluting products (ICLPP). The only aspect where they lag behind persons with the private school background is frequency of environmental activism (FEA), probably due to being less extrovert and gregarious than their counterpart. Income also emerges as an important correlate of environmental consciousness. Persons with higher income are also high in their awareness of the environmental regulations (AER),willingness to pay for the environmentally friendly products (WPM), incidence of information seeking behavior (IISB) and choosing the least polluting products (ICLPP). But in terms of their involvement with the activities relating to influencing others (IIO) and conserving the environment (FCB), they turn out to be poor performers. Sanjay k Jain Gurmeet Kaur (2006), Role of Socio Demographics in Segmenting and profiling Green Consumers; An exploratory Study of consumers in India, Vol.: 18 (3), 107-146. The present paper discusses the emergence of environmentalism in India and examines the response of government agencies, consumers, non- business organizations and corporate houses to the rising levels of pollution and environmental degradation in the country. Along with a brief introduction to the concept of green marketing, a review of the factors responsible for motivating business firms to go green have been included , after which the paper moves on to a discussion of Indias major environmental concerns and efforts made at the governmental level to combat the environmental problem of the country. Succeeding paper analyse related issues such as eco labeling, green consumerism and green corporate marketing practices, in the Indian context. The paper concludes with a discussion of the future of green marketing in India along with the strategy implications and directions for research work.From the foregoing discussion it is clear that environmentalism has gained importance in India. Various environment protection campaigns initiated in the past, enactment of several environment, launching of green labeling scheme (ECOMARK) and ecological marketing initiatives made by business firms- all these eloquently speak of the growing environmental concern in the country. Intensification of such campaigns and efforts is likely to gain further momentum in the coming years, in India. Growing population, fast depletion of resources, paucity of funds, lack of environment friendly technical know-how, changing consumption patterns, and pressure on the policy makers to hasten the pace of industrialization in view of the need to raise the standards of living and provide employment to the masses pose serious environmental challenges The present paper has provided only anecdotal evidence of the adoption of gre en marketing practices by Indian business firms. More rigorous research studies are needed to examine the business firms awareness of different environmental issues and the factors that inhibit and motivate them to go in for green business operations and green marketing practices. Sanjay K Jain Gurmeet Kaur (2004), Green Marketing, An Indian perspective, Vol:31, No 2, 168-209 Rise of the new consumerism in India, with highly packed food are springing up all over the country, so not only ice frog the wests consumption habit, we could also avoid some of the pitfall of our environment movement too. With the rooted culture of the reusing recycling, with the wind of change seems to be blowing in India. Ella Saltmarshe and Annie Dare (2009), Creative Review, Advertising turn India Green, As Indians become increasingly Consumerist, The countrys advertising industries has vital role to play, Vol.: Feb 2009, 40-42 References:- This study has highlighted the role that firms and their marketing strategies play in influencing consumer demand for green technologies. Firms initially developed and introduced new green products in response to consumer pressure and legislation, thus creating new markets for eco-friendly goods. More recent years, however, saw consumer demand pressure increasing only slowly, while the pressure from legislation and competition gained in importance. Managers acknowledged that product performance gaps between green and conventional technologies have been a major barrier in the diffusion of green consumer products in the UK. Managers argued that firms may have mis-specified green product benefits in relation to consumers needs and that in the absence of clarity of green products environmental impact, performance and other attributes, as opposed to green benefits, remain the key determinants of product preference and choice. Limitations in green product performance constrain pricing and communication efforts. However the studys findings suggest that, apart from product performance gaps, firms communication and promotional policies for green product, which disproportionately favored end users, despite the importance of retailer and dealer acceptance, were imbalanced and far from effective. References:- Veronica Wong, William Turner Paul Stoneman (1996), British Journal of management, Marketing Strategies market prospects for environmentally Friendly consumer Product, Vol.: 7, 263-281 DATA COLLECTION APPROACH PRIMARY DATA The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and performs surveys. Here the Primary data will be collected by means of preparing a questionnaire and getting it filled by a large sample space. These questionnaires will help in drawing conclusions about the case. SECONDARY DATA Secondary data means data that are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. SIZE OF SAMPLE : This refers to the numbers of items to be selected from universe to constitute a sample. An optimum sample is one, which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. SAMPLE SIZE: 200 respondents SAMPLE TYPE : CONVENIENCE SAMPLING: When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the case of access; it can be called convenience sampling. DATA COLLECTION AND DATA ANALYSIS 1) Are you aware about the following green products / environmental friendly products? a) Solar inverters/ solar geysers b) Green Paper c) Green apparels d) Green Home Appliances e) CFL Bulbs Products No of Responses Solar inverters/ solar geysers 180 Green Paper 103 Green apparels 67 Green Home appliances 136 CFL bulbs 192 2) Which of the following green products have you used? a) Solar inverters / solar geysers b) Green Paper c) Green apparels d) Green Home Appliances e) CFL Bulbs Products No of Responses Solar inverters/ solar geysers 34 Green Paper 96 Green apparels 46 Green Home appliances 84 CFL bulbs 176 3) Rate the following factors according to their influence on your purchase of Green products Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree High Price High Environment consciousness Low Availability of the product Low Awareness HYPOTHESIS 1: Ho: Price does not have effect on purchase of green products H1: Price has effect on the purchase of green products. Calculation: Observed Expected ((o-E)^2)/E Strongly Disagree 23 40 7.225 Disagree 34 40 0.9 Neutral 14 40 16.9 Agree 83 40 46.225 Strongly agree 46 40 0.9 Chi Square 72.15 Here Chi-Square calculated (72.15) is greater than Chi-Square tabulated (9.48). Thus we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis i.e. price has effect on the purchase of green products. HYPOTHESIS 2: Ho: Environment Consciousness does not have an effect on purchase of green products H1: Environment consciousness has effect on the purchase of green products. Calculation: Observed Expected ((o-E)^2)/E Strongly Disagree 13 40 18.225 Disagree 27 40 4.225 Neutral 58 40 8.1 Agree 72 40 25.6 Strongly agree 30 40 2.5 Chi Square 58.65 Here Chi-Square calculated (58.65) is greater than Chi-Square tabulated (9.48). Thus we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis i.e. Environment consciousness has effect on the purchase of green products HYPOTHESIS 3: Ho: Availability of the Product does not have an effect on purchase of green products H1: Availability of the product has effect on the purchase of green products Calculation: Observed Expected ((o-E)^2)/E Strongly Disagree 26 40 4.9 Disagree 39 40 0.025 Neutral 53 40 4.225 Agree 61 40 11.025 Strongly agree 21 40 9.025 Chi Square 29.2 Here Chi-Square calculated (29.2) is greater than Chi-Square tabulated (9.48). Thus we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis i.e. Availability of the product has effect on the purchase of green products HYPOTHESIS 4: Ho: low awareness does not have an effect on purchase of green products H1: low awareness has effect on the purchase of green products Calculation: Observed Expected ((o-E)^2)/E Strongly Disagree 19 40 11.025 Disagree 37 40 0.225 Neutral 41 40 0.025 Agree 72 40 25.6 Strongly agree 31 40 2.025 Chi Square 38.9 Here Chi-Square calculated (38.9) is greater than Chi-Square tabulated (9.48). Thus we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis i.e. low awareness has effect on the purchase of green products 4) Have you ever used a solar Invertors or a solar geyser? 1. Yes 2. No 5) Which factor plays important role while using solar invertors/ solar geyser? Very Important Important Neutral Less important Not Important High Price High Environment consciousness Low Availability of the product Low Awareness Here question 5 and 7 are combined and regression is been applied. Use is an Dependent variable and independent variables are price, environment consciousness, availability of the product and awareness. Model Summary(b) Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Change Statistics R Square Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change 1 .729(a) .532 .522 .260 .532 55.312 4 195 .000 a Predictors: (Constant), Low Awareness, High Price, High Environment consicouness, low Availability b Dependent Variable: Use Coefficients Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. 95% Confidence Interval for B B Std. Error Beta Lower Bound Upper Bound 1 (Constant) 2.380 .090 26.557 .000 2.203 2.557 High Price -.256 .020 -.638 -12.857 .000 -.295 -.217 High Environment consciousness .038 .016 .116 2.332 .021 .006 .071 low Availability -.110 .024 -.230 -4.564 .000 -.158 -.063 Low Awareness -.001 .023 -.001 -.024 .981 -.046 .045 a Dependent Variable: Use Thus our equation, at 99% level of confidence level, obtained is: Usability of green products = 0.116*(Environment Consciousness) 0.638*(High Price) 0.23*( Low Availability) 0.001*( Low Awareness) This equation suggest that environment consciousness play a vital role on the usability of the green products CONCLUSION From the survey conducted it can be concluded that Indian consumers are still unaware about green marketing. Out of the 200 hundred respondents only 34 have used solar geysers/ solar invertors. Even though they know about green products on smaller scale like the CFL bulbs but are unaware about the other products on larger scale Its further seen that variable that effects the consumers most during the purchase green products is environment consciousness. Green marketing covers more than a firms marketing claims. While firms must bear much of the responsibility for environmental degradation, the responsibility should not be theirs alone. Ultimately green marketing requires that consumers want a cleaner environment and are willing to pay for it, possibly through higher priced goods, modified individual lifestyles, or even governmental intervention. Until this occurs it will be difficult for firms alone to lead the green marketing revolution. Having said this, it must not be forgotten that the industrial buyer also has the ability to pressure suppliers to modify their activities. Thus an environmental committed organization may not only produce goods that have reduced their detrimental impact on the environment, they may also be able to pressure their suppliers to behave in a more environmentally responsible fashion. Final consumers and industrial buyers also have the ability to pressure organizations to integrate the environment into their corporate culture and thus ensure all organizations minimize the detrimental environmental impact of their activities. Thus green marketing should look at minimizing environmental harm, not necessarily eliminating it. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 1. DEMOGRAPHIC CONSTRAINTS will be a main issue of concern. This is due to the reason that the data collection was restricted to the Navi Mumbai and Mumbai. 2. DATA RELIABILITY As the data will be collected from various sources the accuracy of the data collected would be an area of concern. It would be an uphill task to validate the data consistency of the collection of that data. 3. UNAWARENESS People are unaware of Green marketing and green products making it difficult for the survey to take place RECOMMENDATIONS AND LEARNING 1) Green marketing and green products need a lot of advertisements to spread awareness about the concept among the consumers. Majority of the consumers are still unaware about the concept due to which they are not using the products yet. Hence the government and the corporate should advertise and educate the consumers about the product 2) The green products should be more easily available to the consumers making it easier for them to purchase it. The stores should take special efforts to put green products on shelves for display so the consumers pick it up. 3) Since environment consciousness is the factor which affects the most in the purchase of green products it should be used as a vital tool while advertisement 4) The consumers should also take extra efforts in purchase of green products even though it may cost them extra as they are contributing towards saving the environment and the future of the coming generation by doing so. ANNEXURE Market Research Survey on Indian consumers ready for Green Marketing Name:- Age:- 1) Are you aware about the following green products / environmental friendly products? a. Solar inverters/ solar geysers b. Green Paper c. Green apparels d. Green Home Appliances e. CFL Bulbs 2) Which of the following green products have you used? a. Solar inverters / solar geysers b. Green Paper c. Green apparels d. Green Home Appliances e. CFL Bulbs 3) Which is the most used Green product in your house? ( Rate in order of 1-5 with 1 being the most and 5 being the least) a) Solar inverters /solar geysers b) Green Paper c) Green apparels d) Green Home Appliances e) CFL Bulbs 4) Rate the following factors according to their influence on your purchase of Green products Very Important Important Neutral Less important Not Important High Price High Environment consciousness Low Availability of the product Low Awareness 5) Have you ever used a solar Invertors or a solar geyser? 1. Yes 2. No 6) Are you Using Solar Invertors or a solar geyser at your home? 7) Which factor plays important role while using solar invertors/ solar geyser? REFERENCES 1)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_marketing 2)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_marketing#History 3) Chopra, S. Lakshmi (2007), Turning Over a New Leaf, Indian Management, Vol-64, April-2007 4) Ottman, J.A. et al, Avoiding Green Marketing Myopia, Environment, Vol-48, June-2006 5)www.greenmarketing.net/stratergic.html 6) Ottman, J.A. (1993), Green Marketing: Challenges and opportunities, NTC Business Books, Chicago, IL. 7)Porter, M.E., Van der Linde (1995), Green and competitive: ending the stalemate, Harvard Business Review, Vol.73, No.5, pp.120-33.

Can Sugar Help Lower The Freezing Point Of Water

Can sugar help lower the freezing point of water? Each year 17 million tons of salt is applied by state agencies to US roads across the nation helping people navigate otherwise treacherous roads. With the good also comes the bad which is the corrosion or oxidation caused by the natural attraction of water to salt. Salt makes water act as a catalyst by speeding up corrosion on millions of vehicles around the world. Can it be possible to use a less corrosive additive such as sugar to lower the freezing point of water? Problem: Can sugar help lower the freezing point of water? Relevance: Sugar is an additive and should have an effect on the freezing point of water. Other experiments, by university students and US states, have been conducted to find additives that may lower the freezing point of water. The students and US states conducted tests using sugar and different types of salt. Overall, salt performs better in reducing the freezing point of water. 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State Ready Mix Inc. V. Moffatt And Nichol - 2356 Words

Case #1: State Ready Mix Inc. v. Moffatt Nichol (2015) Cal. App. 4th Case Number: No. B253421. Second Dist., Div. Six. Jan. 8, 2015. Parties Involved: †¢ State Ready Mix, Inc: Appellant and Cross Complainant †¢ Moffatt Nichol: Respondent, Cross Defendant †¢ Vincent J. O’Neal: Judge Project Specifications: No specifications were given within the document. Date and Location of Case: †¢ Date: 01/08/2015 †¢ Location: California Court of Appeals, Second District, 6th Division Summary of Case: In 2012, a marine project manager called Bellingham Marine Inc. (â€Å"Bellingham†) hired Major Engineering Marine Inc. (â€Å"Major†) for a project to build a travel lift pier at a harbor. Bellingham then hired a civil engineering firm, Moffatt Nichol†¦show more content†¦The overdose of the chemical came about because of a calculation error. Major had to destroy and rebuild the pier and sued State for damages and State filed a cross-complaint alleging that Moffatt did not use reasonable care in the approval of the design. Three attempts at pleads were made and it was determined that Moffat was not in privity of contract with Major or State due to State being subjected to the economic loss rule. Court Decision: The court ruled that State could not sue for equitable indemnity or contribution based on the fact that there was no evidence that Moffatt owed a duty of care or that Moffatt was negligent. The court also determined that there was no contractual relationship between State and Major and that a person or other property was not damaged. Based on the two core findings, all cross complaints made by State are disregarded and State is found to be solely responsible for the damages. Moffatt is also awarded costs on the appeal. Further Actions: This case was the last appealed case of the series and therefore, no other actions followed. This is because the judge affirmed the case as â€Å"an order sustaining demurrer without leave to amend†. This statement means that the plaintiff cannot amend the complaint. Commentary: Opinion of Case The case seems to be strait forward with the fact that State is at fault for the

Mineral Particles Derived From Rocks Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Introduction Dirts are composed of five chief constituents ( Sinha and Shrivastava, 2000 ) : mineral atoms derived from stones by enduring ; organic stuffs – humus from dead and disintegrating works stuff ; dirt H2O – in which alimentary elements are dissolved ; dirt air – both C dioxide and O ; and populating beings including bacteriums that help works decomposition. We will write a custom essay sample on Mineral Particles Derived From Rocks Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Soils differ in their birthrate degrees, because they have different proportions of these constituents and because the mineral atoms have been affected to different grades by enduring. Age of dirt minerals, predominating temperatures, rainfall, leaching and dirty physico-chemistry are the chief factors which determine how much a peculiar dirt will endure ( Sinha and Shrivastava, 2000 ) . Soil therefore, is of import to everyone either straight or indirectly. It is the natural organic structures on which agricultural merchandises grow and it has delicate ecosystem ( Sinha and Shrivastava, 2000 ) . South Africa ranks among the states with the highest rate of income inequality in the universe ( Aliber, 2009 ) . Compared to other in-between income states, it has highly high degrees of absolute poorness and nutrient insecurity menace ( FAO, 2009 ) . As portion of this, a possible subscriber to nutrient security might be small-scale agricultural production. Aliber ( 2009 ) indicated that input support aiming smallholder husbandmans could hike production and nutrient security. Use of uncultivated cultivable lands and subsistence agribusiness might be one option to lend to incomes and/or nest eggs, every bit good as to promote nutrient variegation ( Altman et al. , 2009 ) . Land with high agricultural suitableness is considered to hold greater long-run security with respects to both agricultural production and development. From a planning position, high agricultural flexibleness is hence considered an appropriate step of high quality agricultural land that is extremely productive and fertile. Merely a little proportion of universe ‘s dirts have a really good degree of birthrate, most of which have merely good to medium birthrate and some have really low birthrate, and are frequently referred to as fringy dirts ( Ashman and Puri, 2002 ) . Well-known fertile dirts are deep alluvial dirts formed from river clay, organic matter- rich dirts on loess stuff, alimentary rich Vertisols and volcanic dirts ( Brady and Weil, 2004 ) . Under hapless direction, dirt birthrate can be earnestly depleted and dirts may go useless for agribusiness. 2.2. SOIL PHYSICO-CHEMISTRY Soil is a natural medium on which agricultural merchandises grow and it is dependent on several factors such as birthrate to be considered productive ( Shah et al. , 2011 ) . The birthrate of the dirt is depended on concentration of dirt foods, organic and inorganic stuffs and H2O. These soil physico-chemical belongingss are classified as being physical, chemical and biological, which greatly influence dirt birthrate ( Ramaru et al. , 2000 ) . To pull off dirt birthrate, cognition and apprehension of these belongingss is required ( as discussed below ) . 2.2.1. Physical dirt belongingss ( I ) Dirt texture Soil texture refers to the comparative proportions of the assorted size groups of single atoms or grains in a dirt ( Rowell, 1994 ) . It is dependent on the mixture of the different atom sizes present in the dirt. Based on these different sizes, dirt atoms are classified as sand ( 0.05- 2mm ) , silt ( 0.002-0,5mm ) and clay ( lt ; 0,002mm ) ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Soil texture is arguably the individual most of import physical belongings of the dirt in footings of dirt birthrate, because it influences several other dirt belongingss including denseness, porousness, H2O and alimentary keeping, rate of organic affair decomposition, infiltration and cation exchange capacity ( Moberg et al. , 1999 ) . Clay particles keep larger measures of H2O and foods, because of their big surface countries ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . This belongings causes the puffiness and shrinkage of clay dirts, but merely those with smectitic group of clay minerals. The big surface country of clay atoms gives foods legion adhering sites particularly when the surface charge denseness is high, which is portion of the ground that mulct textured dirts have such high abilities to retain foods ( Velde, 1995 ) . The pores between clay atoms are really little and complex, so motion of both air and H2O is really slow ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Clay atoms are negatively charged because of their mineralogical composing. Dirts with such atoms normally have high CEC and can retain H2O and works foods ; therefore such dirts are considered to be fertile and good for works growing ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . The cognition of the proportions of different-sized atoms in dirts is critical to understand dirt behaviour and their direction. Since sand atoms are comparatively big, so are the nothingnesss between them, which promote free drainage of H2O and entry of air into the dirt ( Brady and Weil, 2002 ) . The deduction of free drainage in flaxen dirt is that dirt foods are easy washed down into the dirt and go unaccessible for usage by workss ( Brady and Weil, 2002 ) . Sandy dirts are considered non-cohesive and because of their big size, have low specific surface countries and therefore have low alimentary keeping capacity ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Sand atoms can keep small H2O due to low specific surface country and are prone to drought, hence have a really low CEC and birthrate position ( Petersen et al. , 1996 ) . The pores between silt atoms are much smaller than those in sand, so silt retains more H2O and foods ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Soils dominated by silt atoms hence have a higher birthrate position than sandy dirts and provides favourable conditions for works growing when other growing factors are favourable ( Miller and Donahue, 1992 ) . ( two ) Dirt construction The term dirt construction refers to the agreement of dirt atoms into sums ( Six et al. , 2000 ) . Dirt construction is affected by biological activities, organic affair, and cultivation patterns ( Rowell, 1994 ) . It influences soil H2O motion and keeping, eroding, alimentary recycling, sealing and crusting of the dirt surface, together with aeration and dirt ‘s structural stableness, root incursion and harvest output ( Lupwayi et al. , 2001 ) . Dirt construction can be platy, prismatic, farinaceous, crumbly, columnar and blocky ( RCEP, 1996 ) . An ideal dirt construction for works growing is frequently described as farinaceous or crumb-like, because it provides good motion for air and H2O through a assortment of different pore sizes and it besides affects root incursion ( RCEP, 1996 ) . An ideal dirt construction is besides stable and immune to eroding ( Duiker et al. , 2003 ) . Organic affair and humification procedures improve structural stableness, and can reconstruct debauched dirt constructions ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Therefore it is critical to return or add organic stuff to the dirt and to keep its biological activity in order to heighten dirt construction for works growing. Favorable dirt construction and high sum stableness are hence critical to bettering dirt birthrate, increasing agronomic productiveness, heightening porousness and diminishing erodibility. ( three ) Water keeping capacity Water keeping capacity refers to the measure of H2O that the dirt is capable of hive awaying for usage by workss ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Soil H2O is held in, and flows through pore infinites in dirts. Soil H2O can be described into the undermentioned phases: gravitational, capillary, and hygroscopic, based upon the energy with which H2O is held by the dirt solids, which in bend governs their behaviour and handiness to workss ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Water keeping capacity is an of import factor in the pick of workss or harvests to be grown and in the design and direction of irrigation systems ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . The entire sum of H2O available to workss turning in field dirts is a map of the rooting deepness of the works and amount of the H2O held between field capacity and wilting per centum in each of the skylines explored by the roots ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Field capacity is the sum of dirt wet or H2O content held in dirt after extra H2O has drained off and the rate of downward motion has materially decreased, which normally takes topographic point within 2-3 yearss after a rain or irrigation in pervious dirts of unvarying construction and texture ( Govers, 2002 ) . The ability of the dirt to supply H2O for workss is an of import birthrate characteristic ( RCEP, 1996 ) . The capacity for H2O storage varies, depending on dirt belongingss such as organic affair, dirt texture, bulk denseness, and dirt construction ( RCEP, 1996 ) . This is explained by the grade of dirt compression, where jobs will originate if inordinate compression occurs which would consequences in increased majority denseness, a lessening in porousness and aeration and hapless H2O drainage ( Gregory et al. , 2006 ) , all ensuing in hapless works growing. ( four ) Electrical Conductivity ( EC ) Soil electrical conduction ( EC ) , is the ability of dirt to carry on electrical current ( Doerge, 1999 ) . EC is expressed in milliSiemens per metre ( mS/m ) or centimeter ( cm/m ) . Traditionally, dirt scientists used EC to gauge dirt salt ( Doerge, 1999 ) . EC measurings besides have the potency for gauging fluctuation in some of the dirt physical belongingss such as dirt wet and porousness, in a field where dirt salt is non a job ( Farahani and Buchleiter, 2004 ) . Soil salt refers to the presence of major dissolved inorganic solutes in the dirt aqueous stage, which consist of soluble and readily dissoluble salts including charged species ( e.g. , Na+ , K+ , Mg+2, Ca+2, Cla?’ , HCO3a?’ , NO3a?’ , SO4a?’2 and CO3a?’2 ) , non-ionic solutes, and ions that combine to organize ion braces ( Smith and Doran, 1996 ) . Salt tolerances are normally given in footings of the phase of works growing over a scope of electrical conduction ( EC ) degrees. EC greater than 4dS/m are considered saline ( Munshower, 1994 ) . Salt sensitive workss may be affected by conductions below 4dS/m and salt tolerant species may non be impacted by concentrations of up to twice this maximal agricultural tolerance bound ( Munshower, 1994 ) . Electrical conduction is the ability of a solution to convey an electrical current. The conductivity of electricity in dirt takes topographic point through the moisture-filled pores that occur between single dirt atoms. Therefore, the EC of dirt is determined by the undermentioned dirt belongingss ( Doerge, 1999 ) : . Porosity, where the greater dirt porousness, the more easy electricity is conducted. Soil with high clay content has higher porousness than sandier dirt. Compaction usually increases dirt EC. . Water content, dry dirt is much lower in conduction than damp dirt. . Salinity degree, increasing concentration of electrolytes ( salts ) in dirt H2O will dramatically increase dirt EC. . Cation exchange capacity ( CEC ) , mineral dirt incorporating high degrees of organic affair ( humus ) and/or 2:1 clay minerals such as montmorillonite, illite, or vermiculite hold a much higher ability to retain positively charged ions ( such as Ca, Mg, K, Na, NH4, or H ) than dirt missing these components. The presence of these ions in the moisture-filled dirt pores will heighten dirt EC in the same manner that salt does. . Temperature, as temperature decreases toward the stop deading point of H2O, dirt EC decreases somewhat. Below freeze, dirt pores become progressively insulated from each other and overall dirt EC declines quickly. Plants are harmfully affected, both physically and chemically, by extra salts in some dirts and by high degrees of exchangeable Na in others. Dirty with an accretion of exchangeable Na are frequently characterized by hapless tilth and low permeableness and hence low dirt birthrate position, doing them unfavourable for works growing ( Munshower, 1994 ) . ( V ) Bulk Density ( BD ) Soil majority denseness is defined as the mass of dry dirt ( g ) per unit volume ( cm3 ) and is routinely used as a step of dirt compression ( Gregory et al. , 2006 ) . The entire volume includes atom volume, inter-particle nothingness volume and internal pore volume ( Gregory et al. , 2006 ) . Bulk denseness takes into history solid infinite every bit good as pore infinite ( Greenland, 1998 ) . Therefore soils that are porous or well-aggregated ( e.g. clay dirt ) will hold lower majority densenesss than dirts that are non aggregated ( sand ) ( Greenland, 1998 ) . Plant roots can non perforate compacted dirt every bit freely as they would in non-compacted dirt, which limits their entree to H2O and foods present in sub-soil and inhibits their growing ( Hagan et al. , 2010 ) . Compacted dirt requires more frequent applications of irrigation and fertiliser to prolong works growing, which can increase overflow and food degrees in overflow ( Gregory et al. , 2006 ) . The majority denseness of dirt depends greatly on the dirt ‘s mineral make up and the grade of compression. High bulk denseness normally indicate a poorer environment for root growing, reduced aeration and unwanted alterations in hydrologic map, such as decreased infiltration ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . The presence of dirt organic affair, which is well lighter than mineral dirt, can assist diminish bulk denseness and thereby heightening dirt birthrate ( Hagan et al. , 2010 ) . 2.2.2. Soil Chemical belongingss Soil chemical belongingss which include the concentrations of foods, cations, anions, ion exchange reactions and oxidation-reduction belongingss, but for the intent of this survey focal point will be based on belongingss that have an deduction on dirt birthrate including: ( I ) Soil pH Soil pH is an of import dirt belongings that affects several dirt reactions and procedures and is defined as a step of the sourness or alkalinity of the dirt ( Bohn, 2001 ) . It has considerable consequence on dirt procedures including ion exchange reactions and alimentary handiness ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Soil pH is measured on a graduated table of 0 to 14, where a pH of 7.0 is considered impersonal, readings higher than 7.0 are alkalic, and readings lower than 7.0 are considered acidic ( McGuiness, 1993 ) . Most workss are tolerant of a pH scope of 5.5-6.5 which is near impersonal pH scope ( Bohn, 2001 ) . Soil pH is one of the most of import features of dirt birthrate, because it has a direct impact on alimentary handiness and works growing. Most foods are more soluble in acid dirts than in impersonal or somewhat alkalic dirts ( Bohn, 2001 ) . In strongly acidic soils the handiness of macronutrients ( Ca, Mg, K, P, N and S ) every bit good as Mo and B is reduced. In contrast, handiness of micronutrient cations ( Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Al ) is increased by low dirt pH, even to the extent of toxicity of higher workss and micro-organisms ( Bohn, 2001 ) . The pH of a dirt is besides reported to impact so many other dirt belongingss ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) , including alimentary handiness, effects on dirt beings, Fungis thrive in acidic dirts, CEC and works penchants of either acidic or alkalic dirts. Most workss prefer alkaline dirts, but there are a few which need acidic dirts and will decease if placed in an alkaline environment ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . ( two ) Cation Exchange Capacity ( CEC ) Cation exchange capacity is defined as the amount of the sum of the exchangeable cations that a dirt can keep or adsorb ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . A cation is a positively charged ion and most foods cations are: Ca2+ , Mg2+ , K + , NH4+ , Zn2+ , Cu2+ , and Mn2+ . These cations are in the dirt solution and are in dynamic equilibrium with the cations adsorbed on the surface of clay and organic affair ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Clay and organic affair are the chief beginnings of CEC ( Peinemann et al. , 2002 ) . The more clay and organic affair ( humus ) a dirt contains, the higher its CEC and the greater the possible birthrate of that dirt. CEC varies harmonizing to the type of clay. It is highest in montmorillonite clay, lowest in to a great extent weathered kaolinite clay and somewhat higher in the lupus erythematosus weathered illite clay ( Peinemann et al. , 2002 ) . Sand atoms have no capacity to interchange cations because it has no electrical charge ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . CEC is used as a step of dirt alimentary keeping capacity, and the capacity to protect groundwater from cation taint ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . It buffers fluctuations in alimentary handiness and dirt pH ( Bergaya and Vayer, 1997 ) . Plants obtain many of their foods from dirt by an electrochemical procedure called cation exchange. This procedure is the key to understanding dirt birthrate ( Rowell, 1994 ) . Foods that are held by charges on a dirt are termed ‘exchangeable ‘ as they become readily available to workss ( Rowell, 1994 ) .The higher the CEC of a dirt, the more foods it is likely to keep and the higher will be its birthrate degree ( Fullen and Catt, 2004 ) . Factors impacting cation exchange capacity The factors impacting cation exchange capacity include the undermentioned ( Brady and Weil 1999 ) , dirt texture, dirt humus content, nature of clay and dirt reaction. Soil texture influences the CEC of dirts in a manner that it increases when dirt ‘s per centum of clay additions i.e. the finer the dirt texture, the higher the CEC as indicated in Table 2. CEC depends on the nature of clay minerals present, since each mineral has its ain capacity to exchange and keep cations e.g. the CEC of a dirt dominated by vermiculite is much higher than the CEC of another dirt dominated by kaolinite, as vermiculite is high activity clay unlike kaolinte which is low activity clay. When the pH of dirt additions, more H+ ions dissociate from the clay minerals particularly kaolinite, therefore the CEC of dirt dominated by kaolinite besides increases. CEC varies harmonizing to the type of dirt. Humus, the terminal merchandise of decomposed organic affair, has the highest CEC value because organic affair colloids have big measures of negative charges. Humus has a CEC two to five times greater than montmorillonite clay and up to 30 times greater than kaolinite c lay, so is really of import in bettering dirt birthrate. Table 2.1: CEC values for different dirt textures ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) Dirt texture CEC scope ( meq/100g dirt ) Sand 2-4 Sandy loam 2-12 Loam 7-16 Silt loam 9-26 Clay, clay loam 4-60 ( three ) Organic Matter The importance of dirt organic affair in relation to dirty birthrate and physical status is widely recognized in agribusiness. However, organic affair contributes to the birthrate or productiveness of the dirt through its positive effects on the physical, chemical and biological belongingss of the dirt ( Rowell, 1994 ) , as follows: physical – stabilizes dirt construction, improves H2O keeping features, lowers bulk denseness, dark colour may change thermic belongingss ; chemical – higher CEC, acts as a pH buffer, ties up metals, interacts with biological – supplies energy and body-building components for dirt beings, increases microbic populations and their activities, beginning and sink for foods, ecosystem resiliency, affects dirt enzymes. Soil organic affair consists of a broad scope of organic substances, including populating beings, carboneous remains of beings which one time occupied the dirt, and organic compounds produced by current and past metamorphosis of the dirt ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Soil organic affair plays a critical function in dirt procedures and is a cardinal component of incorporate dirt birthrate direction ( ISFM ) ( Brady and Weil, 2004 ) . Organic affair is widely considered to be the individual most of import index of dirt birthrate and productiveness ( Rowell, 1994 ) . It consists chiefly of decayed or disintegrating works and animate being residues and is a really of import dirt constituent. Benefits of Organic affair in dirt harmonizing to Ashman and Puri, ( 2002 ) include: increasing the dirt ‘s cation exchange capacity and moving as nutrient for dirt beings from bacteriums to worms and is an of import constituent in the food and C rhythms. Organic affair, like clay, has a high surface country and is negatively charged with a high CEC, doing it an first-class provider of foods to workss. In add-on, as organic affair decomposes, it releases foods such as N, P and S that are bound in the organic affair ‘s construction, basically copying a slow release fertiliser ( Myers, 1995 ) . Organic affair can besides keep big sums of H2O, which helps foods move from dirt to works roots ( Mikkuta, 2004 ) . An of import feature of organic affair in dirt birthrate is C: N ratio. The C: N ratio in organic affair of cultivable surface skylines normally ranges from 8:1 to 15:1, the average being near 12:1 ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . The C: N ratio in organic residues applied to dirts is of import for two grounds: intense competition among the microorganisms for available dirt N which occurs when residues holding a high Degree centigrade: N ratio are added to dirts and it besides helps find their rate of decay and the rate at which N is made available to workss ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . ( four ) Plant Foods Plants require 13 works foods ( Table 2.2 ) ( micro and macro foods ) for their growing. Each is every bit of import to the works, yet each is required in immensely different sums ( Ronen, 2007 ) . Essential elements are chemical elements that workss need in order to finish their normal life rhythm ( Scoones and Toulhim, 1998 ) . The maps of these elements in the works can non be fulfilled by another, therefore doing each component necessity for works growing and development ( Scoones and Toulhim, 1998 ) . Essential foods are divided into macro and micronutrients as illustrated in Table 3. Macronutrients are those that are required in comparatively high measures for works growing and can be distinguish into two bomber groups, primary and secondary 1s, ( Uchida and Silva, 2000 ) . The primary macro-elements are most often required for works growing and besides needed in the greatest entire measure by workss. For most harvests, secondary macro foods are needed in lesser sums than the primary foods. The 2nd group of works foods which are micronutrients are needed merely in hint sums ( Scoones and Toulhim, 1998 ) . These micronutrients are required in really little sums, but they are merely every bit of import to works development and profitable harvest production as the major foods ( Ronen, 2007 ) . Categorization Component Function in works growing Beginning Lack symptoms and toxicities Macro foods – Primary Nitrogen ( N ) Chlorophyll and Protein formation Air/Soil, applied fertilizers Slow growing, stunted workss, greensickness, low protein content Phosphorus ( P ) Photosynthesis, Stimulates early growing and root formation, hastens adulthood Dirt and applied fertilizers Slow growing, delayed harvest adulthood, purple green colour of foliages Potassium ( K ) Photosynthesis and nzyme activity, amylum and sugar formation, root growing Dirt and applied fertilizers Slow growing, Reduced disease or plague opposition, development of white and xanthous musca volitanss on foliages Macro foods – secondary Calcium ( Ca ) Cell growing and constituent of cell wall Dirt Weakened roots, decease of workss ‘ turning points, unnatural dark green visual aspect on leaf Magnesium ( Mg ) Enzyme activation, photosynthesis and influence Nitrogen metamorphosis Dirt Interveinal greensickness in older foliages, curling of foliages, stunted growing, Sulfur ( S ) Amino acids, proteins and nodule formation Dirt and carnal manure Interveinal greensickness on maize foliages, retarded growing, delayed adulthood and visible radiation viridities to yellowish colour in immature foliages Micronutrients – necessity Iron ( Fe ) Photosynthesis, chlorophyll synthesis, component of assorted enzymes and proteins Dirt Interveinal greensickness, yellowing of foliages between venas, twig dieback, decease of full hitch or workss Manganese ( Mn ) Enzyme activation, metamorphosis of N and organic acids, formation of vitamins and dislocation of saccharides Dirt Interveinal greensickness of immature foliages, step of picket green colour with darker colour next to venas Zinc ( Zn ) Enzymes and auxins constituent, protein synthesis, used in formation of growing endocrines Dirt Mottled foliages, dieback branchlets, lessening in root length Copper ( Cu ) Enzyme activation, accelerator for respiration Dirt Scrawny growing, hapless pigmentation, wilting of foliages Boron ( B ) Reproduction Dirt Thickened, curled, wilted and greensick foliages ; reduced blossoming Molybdenum ( Mo ) Nitrogen arrested development ; nitrate decrease and works growing Dirt Stunting and deficiency of energy ( induced by nitrogen lack ) , searing, cupping or turn overing of foliages Chlorine ( Cl ) Root growing, photosynthetic reactions Dirt Wilting followed by greensickness, inordinate ramification of sidelong roots, bronzing of foliages Extra foods Carbon ( C ) Component of saccharides and photosynthesis Air/ Organic affair Hydrogen ( H ) Maintains osmotic balance and component of saccharides Water/Organic affair Oxygen ( O ) Component of saccharides and necessary for respiration Air/Water/ Organic affair Table 2.2: Essential works elements, their beginnings and function in workss ( Ronen,2007 ) Lack of any of these indispensable foods will retard works development ( Brady and Weil, 2004 ) . Deficiencies and toxicities of foods in dirt present unfavourable conditions for works growing, such as: hapless growing, yellowing of the foliages and perchance the decease of the works as illustrated in Table 3 ( Ahmed et al. , 1997 ) . Therefore proper alimentary direction is required to accomplish upper limit works growing, maximal economic and growing response by the harvest, and besides for minimal environmental impact. In add-on to the foods listed supra, workss require C, H, and O, which are extracted from air and H2O to do up the majority of works weight ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Achieving balance between the alimentary demands of workss and the alimentary militias in dirts is indispensable for keeping dirt birthrate and high outputs, forestalling environmental taint and debasement, and prolonging agricultural production over the long term. 2.2.3. Soil Biological belongingss ( I ) Soil beings Soil beings include largely microscopic populating beings such as bacteriums and Fungis which are the foundation of a healthy dirt because they are the primary decomposer of organic affair ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Soil beings are grouped into two viz. soil micro-organisms and dirt macro beings ( Table 2.3 ) . Table 2.3: Dirt Macro and micro-organisms and their function in works and dirt ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) Categorization Organisms Function in works and/or dirt Beginning Microorganisms Bacterias Decomposition of organic affair Soil surface and humus atoms Actinomycetes Beginning of protein and enhance dirt birthrate Surface beds of grass lands Fungus kingdoms Fix atmospheric N and enhance dirt birthrate Soil ( without organic affair ) Alga Add organic affair to dirty, better aeration of swamp dirts, and repair atmospheric N Moist dirts Macro-organisms Nematodes They can be applied to harvests in big measures as a biological insect powder Dirt and works roots Earthworms Enhance dirt birthrate and structural stableness Aerated dirts Ants and white ants Soil development Dominant in tropical dirts Dirt can incorporate 1000000s of beings that feed off disintegrating stuff such as old works stuff, mulch A ; unrefined compost ( Ashman and Puri, 2002 ) , Microorganisms constitute lt ; 0.5 % of the dirt mass yet they have a major impact on dirt belongingss and procedures. 60-80 % of the entire dirt metamorphosis is due to the microflora ( Alam, 2001 ) . Micro-organisms, including Fungis and bacteriums, affect chemical exchanges between roots and dirt and act as modesty of dirt foods ( Kiem and Kandeler, 1997 ) . Soil organic affair is the chief nutrient and energy beginning of dirt micro-organisms ( Ashman and Puri, 2002 ) . Through decomposition of organic affair, micro-organisms take up their nutrient elements. Organic affair besides serves as a beginning of energy for both macro and micro beings and helps in executing assorted good maps in dirt, ensuing in extremely productive dirt ( Mikutta et al. , 2004 ) . Macro-organisms such as insects, other arthropods, angleworms and roundworms live in the dirt and have an of import influence on dirt birthrate ( Amezketa, 1999 ) . They ingest soil stuff and relocate works stuff and signifier tunnels. The effects of these activities are variable. Macro-organisms improve aeration, porousness, infiltration, aggregative stableness, litter commixture, improved N and C stabilisation, C turnover and carbonate decrease and N mineralization, alimentary handiness and metal mobility ( Amezketa, 1999 ; Winsome and McColl, 1998 and Brown et al. , 2000 ) . The assorted groups of dirt beings do non populate independently of each other, but form an interlocked system more or less in equilibrium with the environment ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Their activity in dirt depend on wet content, temperature, dirt enzymes, disintegration of dirt minerals and dislocation of toxic chemicals. All have a enormous function in the development of dirt birthrate ( Alam, 2001 ) . Their actions involve the formation of structural systems of the dirts which help in the addition of agricultural productiveness ( Alam, 2001 ) . 2.3. SOIL CLAY MINERALOGY The clay fraction of dirt is dominated by clay minerals which control of import dirt chemical belongingss including sorption features of dirts ( Dixon and Schulze, 2002 ) . Minerals are of course happening inorganic compounds, with defined chemical and physical belongingss ( Velde, 1995 ) . Minerals that are formed in the deepnesss of a vent are called primary minerals ( Pal et al. , 2000 ) . Feldspar, biotite, vitreous silica and hornblende are illustrations of primary minerals. These minerals and the stones made from them are frequently non stable when exposed to the weathering agents at the surface of the Earth ( Dixon and Schulze, 2002 ) . These stones are broken down ( weathered ) continuously into little pieces by exposure to physical and chemical weathering procedures ( Dixon and Schulze, 2002 ) . Some of the elements that are released during weathering, reform and crystallise in a different construction organizing secondary minerals ( Melo et al. , 2002 ) . Secondary minerals tend to be much smaller in atom size than primary minerals, and are most normally found in the clay fraction of dirts ( Guggenheim and Martin, 1995 ) . Soil clay fractions frequently contain a broad scope of secondary minerals such as kaolinite, montmorillonite and aluminium hydrated oxides, whereas the sand or silt atoms of dirts are dominated by comparatively inert primary minerals. The clay fraction is normally dominated by secondary minerals which are more chemically active and lend the most to dirty birthrate ( Melo et al. , 2002 ) . Two major secondary mineral groups, clay minerals and hydrated oxides, tend to rule. These groups can look in assorted mixtures frequently in association with dirt organic affair ( Brady and Weil, 2004 ) . Clay minerals are hydrated aluminum phyllosilicates, sometimes with variable sums of Fe, Mg, alkali metals, alkalic Earth metals and other cations, ( Joussein et al. , 2005 ) . They are derived from enduring of stones and are really common in all right grained sedimentary stones such as shale, mudstone and siltstone and in all right grained metamorphous slate and phyllite ( Van der Merwe et al. , 2002 ) . There are besides non-clay minerals such as vitreous silica and calcite which are derived from enduring of pyrogenic stones, ( Van der Merwe et al. , 2002 ) . Clay minerals are indispensable stages in dirt chemical science and play highly of import functions in ion exchange reactions ( Brigatti et al. , 1996 ; Barrow, 1999 ) . Soils which are texturally and chemically similar may differ in productiveness or birthrate due to the presence or absence of little sums of peculiar clay minerals ( Van der Merwe et al. , 2002 ) . For illustration, smectite clays are various and strong cationic money changers and their presence can greatly act upon the mobility of potentially toxic elements. Vermiculite has been widely used in the survey of short- to medium-term fluctuations ( seasonal and one-year ) in dirt procedures ( Monterroso and Macias, 1998 ) . Soil clay mineralogy plays a critical function in dirt birthrate since mineral surfaces serve as possible sites for alimentary storage ( Tucker, 1999 ) . However, different types of dirt minerals hold and retain differing sums of foods ( Velde, 1995 ) . Therefore, it is critical to cognize the types of minerals that make up a dirt so as to foretell the grade to which the dirt can retain and provide foods to workss. Knowledge of the clay mineralogical composing and the different clay minerals present in dirt is of import in understanding usage, and direction of the dirt, and in finding the agricultural potencies of dirts. 2.3.1. Happening of clay and clay minerals Claies and clay minerals occur under a reasonably limited scope of geologic conditions ( Velde et al. , 2003 ) . The environments of formation include dirt skylines, Continental and marine deposits, geothermic Fieldss, volcanic sedimentations, and enduring stone formations ( Joussein et al. , 2005 ) . Most clay minerals form where stones are in contact with H2O, air, or steam ( Hillier, 1995 ) . Examples of these state of affairss include enduring bowlders on a hillside, deposits in sea or lake undersides, profoundly inhumed deposits incorporating pure H2O, and stones in contact with H2O heated by magma ( liquefied stone ) ( Hillier, 1995 ) . A primary demand for the formation of clay minerals is the presence of H2O. Soil clay minerals ‘ formation occurs in many different environments, including the weathering environment, the sedimentary environment, and the digenetic-hydrothermal environment ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Clay minerals composed of the more soluble compounds e.g. smectites are formed in environments where ions can roll up ( e.g. in a dry clime, in a ill drained dirt, in the ocean, or in saline lakes ) ( Velde 1995 ) . Clay minerals composed of less soluble compounds ( for illustration, kaolinite and halloysite ) signifier in more dilute H2O such as that found in environments that undergo terrible leaching ( for illustration, a brow in the wet Torrid Zones ) , where merely meagerly soluble elements such as aluminium and Si can stay ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . Illite and chlorite are known to organize copiously in the diagenetic-hydrothermal environment by reaction from smectite ( Brady and Weil, 1999 ) . 2.3.2. Weathering of minerals The minerals ‘ parent stuffs form in the crystallization of liquefied stone stuff: these are known as primary minerals, and include olivine, quartz, feldspar and hornblende. Primary minerals are non stable when exposed to H2O, air current and extremes of temperature ( Hillier, 1995 ) . Some of the elements that are released during enduring reform and crystallise in a different construction: these are the secondary minerals, and include vermiculite, montmorillonite and kaolinite ( Hillier, 1995 ) . Secondary minerals tend to be much smaller in atom size than primary minerals, and are most normally found in the clay fraction of dirts. As minerals weather, they lose Si ( as soluble silicic acid ) , taking to increasing proportions of aluminates in weather-beaten clays, such as kaolinite. Aluminium hydrated oxide species are amphoteric. The rate and nature of the enduring procedure really much depends on climatic conditions. Intense enduring produced in a hot and damp clime can take to major alterations in mineral construction and the transition to hydrated oxides. There are four stages to be considered in the system that model the formation of clay minerals by the weathering of flinty stones as the clays have a definite composing: K-feldspar, Muscovite ( illite ) , Kaolinite and gibbsite: 3KAlSi3O8 ) +2H+ +12H2O i‚ «2K+ +6Si ( OH ) 4 +KAl3Si3O10 ( OH ) 2 ( K- Feldspar ) ( Illite ) †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ [ Eqn. 2.1 ] 2KAl3Si3O10 ( OH ) 2 + 3H2O + 2H+ i‚ «2K+ + 3Al2Si2O5 ( OH ) 4 ( Illite ) ( Kaolinite ) †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ . [ Eqn. 2.2 ] Al2Si2O5+ ( OH ) 4 5H2O i‚ «iˆ 2Si ( OH ) 4 + 2Al ( OH ) 3 ( Kaolinite ) ( Gibbsite ) †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ . [ Eqn. 2.3 ] How to cite Mineral Particles Derived From Rocks Environmental Sciences Essay, Essay examples

London free essay sample

Contentss Prehistory_____________________________________________________ 2 London is the largest metropolis in Europe_________________________________ 3 Cultural life of London___________________________________________ 5 The features of British humanistic disciplines and letters__________________________ 5 Theatre and cinema______________________________________________ 7 Music________________________________________________________ 8 Literature_____________________________________________________ 9 The all right arts__________________________________________________ 11 Museums of London____________________________________________ 12 Parks of London_______________________________________________ 13 Housing_____________________________________________________ 14 Traffic_______________________________________________________ 16 Bibliography__________________________________________________ 18 Prehistory Prehistory Two thousand old ages ago there was an Iron Age Celtic civilization throughout the British Isles. It seems that the Celts, who had been geting from Europe from the 8th century BC onwards, intermingled with the peoples who were already at that place. We know that spiritual sites that had been built long before the reaching of the Celts continued to be used in the Gaelic period. For people in Britain today, the main significance of the prehistoric period is its sense of enigma. This sense finds its focal point most easy in the amazing monumental # 8211 ; architecture of this period, the remains of which exist throughout the state. Wiltshire, in south-western England, has two dramatic illustrations: Silbury Hill, the largest burial hill in Europe, and Stonehenge. The population fell rapidly during the 19th and 20th century’s when residential housing was demolished in favour of new office buildings. It is now the case that there are 33% more workers than residents in the area. Having suffered heavy damage during World War II very few of the original structures remain. It is important to mention that St Paul’s cathedral did remain standing and there are many well-published photographs of St Paul’s surrounded by buildings which were on fire or completely destroyed, most notably ‘St Paul’s Survives’ taken by Herbert Mason. Despite the destruction caused by the war it did allow for mass rebuilding of larger scale and more modern developments. It is not too difficult to spot the difference between pre and post war developments, predominantly because pre war buildings are often much smaller. Many people suggest that Paternoster Square outside St Paul’s is an example of how the post war trends might have now been reversed. This view is largely due to the ‘traffic free, public open space’ and ‘classical architecture, using traditional materials’ that now forms the square. For the comparison purposes of answering this question I will be using the Lloyds Building located on Lime Street in London designed by Richard Rogers and completed in 1986. The insurance company Lloyds of London commissioned it in the 1970’s because they needed more space as they continued to expand. Lloyds had spread to three buildings across both Leadenhall and Lime Streets. This included the Royal Mail building and a purpose built office for Lloyds that been designed by the architect Terence Heysham5. This office had a considerably more conservative and classical look and was arguably much more suited to the location than the new Lloyds building. It had been planned to be adequate for Lloyds’ purposes until the 21st century but this wasn’t the case. The building has since been demolished and is the site of the modern Willis Building. The unusual design of the Lloyds building with all of the services located on the outside has certainly caused many conflicting opinions. This has been labelled ‘Bowellism’ and is a method used to create as much space and flexibility as possible for the interior. My general opinion of ‘services’ is grey, cold and they ought to be hidden within the walls. When I first set eyes on the building, thoughts of industrial factories and multi story car parks entered my mind. This is due to the large amounts of metal that forms the majority of the exterior. I believe the building looks as though it is performing a function, like a power station, not a useable office building. I am by no means against modern development in the City of London, however I believe the Lloyds Building is not suited to the City of London. The Willis building on the other hand is smart, light and looks like it means business. The same could be said for the closely located Gherkin and Shard buildings. The development can still be unusual and previously untried, but in my opinion shout not be outrageous and provoking. Having said this though, I believe an architect would feel he had failed if no one had been provoked by his work. A particular building or site distinguishes many cities. For example the Eiffel tower is the symbol for Paris and one may say Buckingham Palace is the symbol for London. This means that a city’s identity can be portrayed through its architecture and I believe that a building like the Lloyds building is not appropriate for the prestigious City of London. The extent to which the Lloyds Building is a modern success can definitely be questioned. One of the aims of locating the ugly serviceable components on the outside is that costs are saved on repairs because everything is accessible. However the cost of cleaning the external steel is so extortionate and frequent that the benefits are outweighed completely. Also, now that it is Grade 1 listed it means alternations are extremely hard to make. The whole point of the design was that the building could be changed and re-ordered like Meccano. This means it can no longer even achieve one of the primary objectives that were in mind when it was built. This is one of the main reasons I believe it does not represent a ‘successful modern property development’. In the summer of 2013 it was reported: ‘The outgoing chief executive of Lloyd’s of London blamed the design of the insurer’s headquarters for its high maintenance costs’ 6and that Lloyds are considering terminating their lease when the next break clause occurs in 2021. With regards to ‘respecting the historic sense of identity’ in the City of London, I believe it is completely unsuitable and looks out of palace in the ‘square mile’. It doesn’t necessarily comply with the description of the City that Glinert gives us either. Glinert portrays a medieval scene with bustling streets full of culture. The Lloyds building is certainly an attraction, and people travel a long way to visit it, but as far as expressing London’s identity goes it’s hopeless. Many people would argue that it shows the City of London is able to adapt and progress in new and exciting ways. An article from the Financial Times in July 2013 read ‘†¦the subsequent development of the city has shown the Lloyds Building to be a brilliant and resilient sculptural masterpiece which manages to maintain a balance between its dense, historic surroundings, its transplanted historic interiors and the rapidly changing cityscape around it7. ’ This quote seemingly contradicts my opinion regarding the building and explains that it is in tune with its surroundings despite its very contrary styling. I find the design almost rather sinister in comparison to other modern developments such as the Gherkin. Whilst I admire the Lloyds Building I don’t think that it has the right character for the City of London. Whilst even the newest skyscrapers don’t blend in with the City’s past heritage, they don’t blot it either. They look prestigious and add a new and exciting vibe to the area at the same time as not only respecting but also improving the overall identity of the City. There is no doubt that the Lloyds building was designed to stand out and be  significant, but it is a futuristic mess of twisted metal and concrete that doesn’t have a place in London. I have also done some research and noticed that there haven’t been any further developments exposing the service components since the Lloyds building was finished. This evidently means that it hasn’t been a great accomplishment and could almost be viewed as an expensive experiment. I was surprised when it was granted Grade 1 listed status in 2011. English Heritage describes it as ‘universally recognised as one of the key buildings of the modern epoch’. Whilst it is significant and modern I can’t argue that it conforms to Glinert’s identification of London ‘seeping with history, filled with ancient churches and medieval alleyways’. 8 It could easily be placed in any other city in the world and it would still be significant for the same reasons and would take nothing of London with it. Due to the reasons I have presented I cannot accept that the Lloyds Building delivers successful modern property development or that it respects the historic sense of identity that is so important to the City of London.

SBAR Research free essay sample

Background: The Joint Commission International Patient Safety Goal 2 states that effective communication between health care workers needs to improve. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of SBAR (situation, background, assessment, recommendation) on the incidence of serious adverse events (SAE’s) in hospital wards. Method: In 16 hospital wards nurses were trained to use SBAR to communicate with physicians in cases of deteriorating patients. A pre (July 2010 and April 2011) and post (June 2011 and March 2012) intervention study was performed. Patient records were checked for SBAR items up to 48 h before a SAE. A questionnaire was used to measure nurse–physician communication and collaboration. Results: During 37,239 admissions 207 SAE’s occurred and were checked for SBAR items, 425 nurses were questioned. Post intervention all four SBAR elements were notated more frequently in patient records in case of a SAE (from 4% to 35%; p 0. We will write a custom essay sample on SBAR Research or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 001), total score on the questionnaire increased in nurses (from 58 (range 31–97) to 64 (range 25–97); p 0. 001), the number of unplanned intensive care unit (ICU) admissions increased (from 13. 1/1000 to 14. 8/1000 admissions; relative risk ratio (RRR) = 50%; 95% CI 30–64; p = 0. 001) and unexpected deaths decreased (from 0. 99/1000 to 0. 34/1000 admissions; RRR = ? 227%; 95% CI ? 793 to ? 20; NNT 1656; p 0. 001). There was no difference in the number of cardiac arrest team calls. Conclusion: After introducing SBAR we found increased perception of effective communication and collaboration in nurses, an increase in unplanned ICU admissions and a decrease in unexpected deaths.  © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The Joint Commission International Patient Safety Goal number 2 (Standard IPSG 2) states that effective communication among health care workers has to improve. According to the Institute of Medicine the six aims in the 21st-century health care system are: safe, effective, patient-centred, timely, ef? cient and equitable. 2 Many potential barriers have been reported in nurse–physician communication such as lack of structure, hierarchy, language, culture, sex and difference in communication style. 3–5 Nurses tend to be more detailed in their communications whereas physicians use more brief statements. 4 In the context of critical events, nurses and ? A Spanish translated version of the abstract of this article appears as Appendix in the ? nal online version at http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. resuscitation. 2013. 03. 016. ? Corresponding author at: Antwerp University Hospital, Wilrijkstraat 10, 2650 Edegem, Belgium. E-mail addresses: koen. [emailprotected] ac. be, koen. de. [emailprotected] be (K. De Meester). 0300-9572/$ – see front matter  © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. resuscitation. 2013. 03. 016 physicians often communicate over the phone which makes these communications error-prone. 6 Up to 65% of serious adverse events (SAEs) include communication as a contributing factor. 7 Root cause analysis of SAEs on wards reveals failure in three domains. First, no observations are made for a prolonged period and/or changes in vital signs are not detected. Second, despite the recording of vital signs, clinical deterioration is not recognized and/or no action is taken. Finally, when deterioration is recognized and assistance sought, medical attention is delayed. This delay in receiving medical attention can originate from sub-optimal nurse–physician communication or collaboration. 8 In answer to these three domains of failure, rapid response systems (RRSs) have been widely introduced although they are not supported by a high level of evidence. It remains uncertain which elements of RRSs contribute most to patient outcome but there is growing awareness that the effect depends on the different components such as the ability to detect and interpret deterioration, to communicate clearly and to start the correct response without delay. 10 By implementing a standard observation protocol incorporating the modi? ed early warning score (MEWS), better and accurate patient observation and K. De Meester et al. / Resuscitation 84 (2013) 1192–1196 interpretation of abnormal vital signs was achieved in our hospital. The components â€Å"detection† and â€Å"interpretation† were improved. It remained unclear whether in cases of patient deterioration the nurse–physician communication was clear and provided the best information to optimize collaboration so physicians could respond without delay. Dr. Michael Leonard, physicianleader at Kaizer Permanente in Denver introduced standardised communication with the SBAR (situation, background, assessment, and recommendation) structure to optimize effective communication. 12,13 By using the SBAR tool nurses could be empowered to formulate a recommendation to a physician. This is only possible after formal assessment of the patient and knowing the situation and the background of the patient. We hypothesized that if nurses are better prepared before calling a physician and by structuring the communication, physicians should be better informed and able to prioritise in their work, give the best orders and take the right actions. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of standard SBAR communication in deteriorating patients on the perception of effective communication and collaboration between nurses and physicians and on the incidence of SAEs in adult hospital wards. 2. Method 2. 1. Design, setting and participants We investigated SAEs and conducted a questionnaire for nurses pre and post the introduction of SBAR in the Antwerp University Hospital (AUH). AUH is the tertiary referral hospital of the University of Antwerp and has one campus of 573 beds. AUH provides all medical and surgical specialties but has no beds for chronic or psychiatric hospitalization. In the research period there were 244 beds on nine medical wards including a 10-bed cardiac care unit, 205 beds on seven surgical wards including eight beds for medium care and 45 beds on ? ve intensive care units (ICUs). Of the 16 medical and surgical wards nine have one nurse and seven have two nurses during the night shift. A mobile team of two nurses and one nursing aid support these nurses each night shift. The hospital has a physician-led cardiac arrest team 24 h a day, seven days a week. No additional rapid response team is available. The pre intervention period was 10 months between July 2010 and April 2011, and the post intervention period was 10 months between May 2011 and March 2012. To measure perception of effective nurse–physician communication and collaboration, nurses and physicians were asked to respond to the â€Å"Communication, Collaboration and Critical Thinking Quality Patient Outcomes Survey Tool† (CCCT Tool) questionnaire by Vazirani et al. pre and post intervention. 14 The participants for this questionnaire were all nurses involved in the direct care for patients on medical and surgical wards. The face validity of the Dutch translation of the CCCT Tool was veri? ed by a staff nurse, one director of nursing and two physicians. Consensus on wording was achieved. The translation was then back-translated into English for validation by an academic quali? ed expert. The hospital admission and discharge registration system and the hospital registration for emergency calls were used to detect cases of SAEs. This included all patients older than 16 years without do not attempt resuscitation (DNAR) order who stayed for at least one night on a medical or surgical nursing unit during the study period. Patients with a DNAR code were excluded from the study because the outcome indicator â€Å"unexpected death† was de? ned as â€Å"death without pre-existing DNAR code†. 15 The Ethics Committee of the hospital approved the study (EC Nr 11/43/316) registered in Belgium under number B300201112705. Informed consent for Patients was waived as no therapeutic intervention was scheduled 1193 or in? uenced by the trial. Nurses participating in the questionnaire signed for informed consent. 2. 2. Intervention The intervention was the second step in the introduction of the afferent limb of a RRS. 9 The afferent limb of a RRS has the following components: patient observation, measurement of vital signs, patient assessment, recognition of clinical deterioration, call criteria for triggering a response and a policy to communicate with the health care workers of the efferent limb of the RRS. The ? rst step was introduced on 1 November 2009 and consisted of the Introduction of a standardised nurse observation protocol including the MEWS and a coloured graphical observation chart. 11 The MEWS includes 6 vital signs: heart rate, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, consciousness (AVPU = alert, voice, pain, and unresponsive), systolic blood pressure and temperature. 16 This second step focused on better communication, collaboration and critical thinking in cases of clinical emergencies on medical and surgical wards. Nurses were educated and instructed to use the SBAR tool for handover communication between nursing shifts and to use SBAR in cases of deteriorating patients when calling a physician. Physicians were not instructed because the aim of this study was to use SBAR only in the communication of nurses calling physicians. First, for each ward one or two reference nurses received a two-day course in SBAR by discussing the problem of communication-related errors and the need for standard communication in clinical emergencies, explaining the use of SBAR and training in using SBAR by roleplay. Second, the other nurses were educated and instructed by the reference nurse of their ward in a 2-h training session. Additionally, a 4-h lesson on early detection, the ABCDE algorithm (airway, breathing, circulation, disability, and exposure), critical thinking and SBAR communication for all nurses was part of the intervention. 17,18 Nurses were instructed to be better prepared before calling for help by taking every step in the early warning process: frequent patient observation and measuring six vital signs at the same time according to the standardised nurse observation protocol, calculation of MEWS, assessing the patient by using the ABCDE algorithm and notating their ?ndings in the patient record according the SBAR structure. No instruction was given about writing down and reading back the verbal orders given by physicians. 2. 3. Main outcome measures 2. 3. 1. The questionnaire The perception of effective communication was measured by the CCCT Tool. 13 Twelve questions were postulated for nurses about physicians. A 4-point Likert scale was used scoring each question in the same direction: â₠¬Å"strongly agree (4 points)†, â€Å"agree (3 points)†, â€Å"disagree (2 points)†, and â€Å"strongly disagree (1 point)†. Three dimensions were deducted: collaboration, communication between nurses and physicians and perception of communication. 2. 3. 2. Cases of a SAE Patient records with identi? ed SAEs were checked by an investigator for a period of 48 h before the SAE for SBAR items according to the SBAR form of the Kaiser Permanente Centre for Health Research (1) to investigate if nurses prepared their communication according to the SBAR protocol, (2) to analyze the type and frequency of vital signs noted in the patient record. SAE’s were de?ned as: unexpected deaths (=deaths without do not attempt resuscitation code), unplanned admission to an ICU and cardiac arrest team calls. 19,20 1194 K. De Meester et al. / Resuscitation 84 (2013) 1192–1196 Table 1 Demographics of â€Å"Communication, Collaboration and Critical Thinking Quality Patient Outcomes Survey Tool† questionnaire participants. Total Nurses Gender (male) Age in years Medical nursing unit Surgical nursing unit Experi ence in years Years in the nursing unit Number % Mean (range) % % Mean (range) Mean (range) Pre intervention period Post intervention period 425 10. 6 40. 0 (21–64) 42. 9 57. 1 15. 4 (0–44) 12. 0 (0–32) 245 9. 1 40. 5 (21–64) 46. 9 53. 1 15. 4 (0–44) 11. 3 (0–32) 180 12. 9 39. 51 (21–63) 37. 3* 62. 7* 15. 4 (0–37) 13. 2 (1–32) p-Values: independent samples t-test, Pearsons’ chi-square, Mann–Whitney U-test not signi? cant. * Pearsons’ chi-square = p 0. 05. 2. 4. Statistical analysis Descriptive analysis of the study population was performed comparing the characteristics of the pre and post intervention population. Independent sample t-test, Pearsons’ chi-square, Fishers’ exact test and Cronbachs alfa were performed. In cases of non-normally distributed continuous variables the non-parametric Mann–Whitney U-test was used. The relative risk ratio (RRR) and number needed to treat (NNT = ((1/ARR) ? 100)) were calculated. For data analysis we used SPSS ® , version 20. 0 (IBM, Chicago, IL, USA) and statistical signi? cance was set at p 0. 05. 21 2. 4. 1. The questionnaire The total score on the CCCT Tool ranges from 12 to 48. We transformed this to a 0–100 scale by using the formula: ((total score ? lowest possible score)/range of total score) ? 100 for clarity reasons. Mean values are reported. The three dimensions were: â€Å"collaboration† (questions 1, 2, 3 and 4), â€Å"overall perception of communication† (questions 5, 6, 7), â€Å"communication between physicians and nurses† (questions 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12). 2. 4. 2. Patient record analysis Wards were divided according to medical and surgical specialty. Length of stay (LOS) was coded in days. The variable SBAR was scored â€Å"1† if all 4 elements of SBAR were found in the patient record and all other possible combinations were scored â€Å"0† as not compliant with the SBAR protocol. 3. Results 3. 1. The questionnaire The questionnaire was completed by 425 nurses. Nurses’ response rate in the pre intervention period was 72% (n = 245) and 53% in the post intervention period (n = 180). For questionnaire participants there were no demographic differences between pre and post intervention group (Table 1). The mean age of the respondents was 40 years, they were mainly female (90%) of Belgian nationality (92%) and worked as a nurse for 15 years. Sixty percent of the nurses had a bachelor degree. Nurses’ total score on the CCCT Tool increased from 58 (range 31–97; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.883) in the pre intervention period to 64 (range 25–97; p 0. 001; Cronbach’s alpha = 0. 843) in the post intervention period. The subscales for nurse–physician communication and for collaboration changed in the same direction (Table 2). 3. 2. Patient record analysis The SBAR items were notated more frequently in patient records from mean 32% in the pre intervention period to 56% (p 0. 005) post intervention. Pre intervention only 4% of the SAE’s all 4 SBAR elements were notated in the patient records and in the post intervention period this increased to 35% (p 0.001). 3. 3. Patient outcome During the research periods with 210,074 inpatient days and 37,239 admissions there were 207 SAE’s of which 81 (4. 4/1000 admissions) in the pre intervention period and 126 (6. 7/1000 admissions) in the post intervention period. Of the patients with SAE’s 35% had a previous ICU episode during the same hospital stay. Compared to the pre intervention period patients with a SAE episode in the post intervention period were younger (from mean 68 to 63 years) and stayed shorter in the hospital (from mean 32 days to 46 days) (Table 3). Patients with SAE episodes were mainly male (54%) and were admitted to medical wards in 73%. In 88% of the SAE’s vital signs were found in the patient record up to 8 h prior to the event. The number of unplanned ICU-transfers increased from 51 (13. 1/1000 admissions) in the pre intervention period to 105 (14. 8/1000 admissions) in the post intervention period (RRR = 50%, 95% CI = 30–64; p = 0. 001). There was no signi? cant difference in Cardiac Arrest Team calls (Table 3). The number of unexpected deaths decreased from 16 (0. 99/1000 admissions) in the pre intervention period to 5 (0.34/1000 admissions) in the post intervention period (RRR = ? 227%, 95% CI = ? 793 to ? 20, NNT 1656; p 0. 001). Table 2 Results of the â€Å"Communication, Collaboration and Critical Thinking Quality Patient Outcomes Survey Tool† questionnaire. Pre intervention N = 245 Nurses Total score (48b ) Subscales Collaboration (16b ) Communication with physician (20b Overall perception of c ommunication (12b ) a b c Cronbach’s alpha for the whole population. Independent samples t-test. Scores corrected to a 0–100 scale. Post intervention N = 18 p 58. 6 (31–97) 63. 9 (25–97)

Write Your First PTE Essay - Help With Writing a Good One

Write Your First PTE Essay - Help With Writing a Good OneAn instructor will not offer a PTE essay sample. But the same instructor can assign you one based on their own suggestions.You have probably seen the pre-tested essay samples. They are usually filled with advice that is directly relevant to your topic and format. The material is usually presented in a reader-friendly format. It is a well-known fact that these guides can save a lot of time.But the reader-friendly format may be full of errors that can derail your course outline. The guide author was just guessing on your grade, so you want to have the confidence that your grade is accurate. If you are not comfortable writing for class, you might not be confident writing for a standardized test. Thus, it is important that you understand the writing skills needed to write an essay.A PTE essay sample could also contain your formatting instructions and punctuation rules. Some good examples of course outlines are presented in the guid e and they indicate that certain words or phrases should be emphasized or you should use certain punctuation. This is one way to help you avoid making mistakes during class.You also want to know how the syllabus has been completed. While you will be busy and be too distracted to actually write a student draft, a sample assignment can give you some ideas on what you may need to change. This is the best way to get a fair idea on how the test is going to be like.In addition, you want to be able to write a composition with clarity. Do not forget that you are the student learning. The guide may be correct, but mistakes do happen and you should be aware of them.Since you have a pre-determined length for the essay, it would be nice if you get some feedback from your instructor. If the instructor finds the paper lacks clarity, they will be happy to give you feedback on a paragraph level so that you can work on it while you study for the test.Keep in mind that although you may not remember w hat type of essay you wrote, the guide is likely that you wrote an essay based on past tests that you took. This will make it easier for you to remember things that you did wrong and prepare for future tests. Writing an essay may seem complicated, but it is actually fairly simple once you know how to write one.